Bilateral Relations Research Articles

Bilateral Cooperation Between China and Peru Under the Belt and Road Initiative --From Strategic Layout to Future Prospects

In recent years, the bilateral relationship between China and Peru has developed rapidly, especially with the advancement of China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), leading to significant progress in cooperation across areas such as economy, trade, and investment. As a major country in Latin America, Peru holds unique advantages in terms of its geopolitical location, resource reserves, and market potential, making it a key partner for China within the region. This paper explores the background of Sino-Peruvian relations, the advancement of the BRI in Latin America, and the strategic importance of Peru's Chancay Port project.

Geography: The Geopolitics of China–Pakistan Relations

This article argues that Pakistan's strategic location provides a strong foundation for the durability of its relations with China. In support of this claim, it assesses the impact of other key factors, including the “Indian factor,” in this bilateral relationship. The article illustrates Pakistan's “advantageous” location compared to China's inherent geographical limitations. The Chinese elite realized geographical realities from the beginning and pursued a long‐term partnership with Pakistan. This was evident from China's investment in megaprojects in Pakistan, which were all premised on geography. Pakistan's geographical location has served China's interests in various ways, including breaking China's encirclement, acting as a gateway to the outside world, and preventing the infiltration of militancy into the mainland during the Cold War. Pakistan can potentially act as a hub between China and other regional countries in the context of the Belt and Road Initiative. The article diverts emphasis from the “Indian factor” to enduring geographical conditions as the basis for the durable Beijing–Islamabad partnership.

Post-9/11 Analysis of Pakistan-Afghanistan Relations (2001-2021)

In the post-9/11 era, Pakistan and Afghanistan share a closely interconnected geopolitical relationship characterized by a mutual prosperity that not only affects the well-being of their populations but also significantly influences regional and global developments. This study employs historical analysis and case studies to examine the bilateral interactions between Pakistan and Afghanistan in the political, security, and economic spheres since the events of 9/11. It finds that their relationship has long remained at a subdued level. The core thesis of this research is that border disputes, terrorism, strategic mistrust, issues with refugees and narcotics, and Indian interference are the principal barriers preventing an improvement in their bilateral ties. Strategic suspicions between Pakistan and Afghanistan have accumulated over many years. The return to power of the Afghan Taliban has once again made terrorism a major impediment in their relationship. In the short term, it remains unlikely that there will be any fundamental change in their bilateral relations.

Security-Diplomacy Nexus: Nature of Bilateral Cooperation in Kenya - India Military Diplomatic Relations Since 1963

Bilateral and multilateral agreements have been one of the mechanisms through which growth and development have taken place. The newly created independent states of the Cold War period presented a major paradigm shift in international cooperation to include military diplomacy. Kenya and India being among these newly created states have had their cooperation where by the two countries have used their good diplomatic relations to bolster one another's military capabilities. The current study sought to put into perspective the conduct of bilateral relations between Kenya and India. The objective of this study was to examine the nature of bilateral cooperation in enhancing Kenya-India military-diplomatic relations since 1963. The study was anchored on power theory. The study adopted a descriptive research design. The study was carried out in Nairobi County, Kenya with a specific focus on the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Defence Ministry, and Indian High Commission. The target population was 2500. The sample size for the study was determined using Yamane's (1967) formula to calculate the sample size, which was 250 Qualitative data obtained from interviews were analysed using narrative reports using thematic techniques. Quantitative data from the questionnaires was edited, coded, and entered into a computer spreadsheet in a standard format to allow descriptive statistics analysis. Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) edition 24 and Microsoft Office Excel 2013 were used for the quantitative data. The findings of the study revealed that the nature of Kenya-India military diplomatic relations manifested in various forms including through High-profile visits by Kenyan and Indian officials to both states as a way of strengthening bilateral relations. Technological transfer was another way through which these two nations shaped their diplomatic relationship, particularly in information and communication technology (ICT). Additionally, Defense trade and trade agreements, Security Partnerships, Counterterrorism activities, Maritime Safety, and Peacekeeping missions were common areas of cooperation between Kenya and India. The study concludes that bilateral cooperation between Kenya and India has been instrumental in enhancing their military-diplomatic relations since 1963. The study recommends that, to better understand the nature of bilateral cooperation, Kenya and India should establish a permanent joint military commission to oversee and coordinate defense initiatives.

A certain idea of space: France, Germany, and the question of geopolitics in Europe

ABSTRACT Given the traditional centrality of their bilateral relationship, France and Germany face calls to lead the way towards more integrated EU geopolitics, but meanings and implications remain vaguer than in other policy areas. What is geopolitics, and why seem France and Germany to be struggling to cooperate? To answer these questions, the article opts for an etymologically narrower definition than most contributions, focusing on the territorial politics of influence spheres. Tracing the evolution of distinct national intellectual traditions from the late-nineteenth century to the present day, France’s geopolitical orientation is interpreted as longitudinal, seeking a separate influence sphere between western and eastern powers, reaching across the Mediterranean into the Sahel. Germany’s traditional orientation is characterised as latitudinal, looking towards Eurasia and across the Atlantic. Bridging critical and classical geopolitics, the article argues that current tensions arise where France’s traditional spatial orientation reflects today’s growing challenges to German conceptions, and vice-versa.

Navigating strategic waters: India-US foundational defence agreements and the quest for strategic autonomy

ABSTRACT This paper examines the evolving strategic partnership between India and the United States, particularly through the lens of foundational defence agreements. Focusing on key agreements such as the Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA), Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement (COMCASA), and the Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement (BECA), the study evaluates their implications for defence collaboration and India’s strategic autonomy. The analysis highlights how these agreements have strengthened both bilateral security cooperation and regional collaboration within the Indo-Pacific, while also opening avenues for new areas of defence cooperation and spurring new initiatives in India-US ties. The paper discusses how Modi's pragmatic reinterpretation of strategic autonomy aligns with India's national interests amidst escalating geopolitical challenges, particularly from China. By deepening the India-US strategic partnership and bolstering India's defence capabilities, these agreements are reshaping regional security dynamics in the Indo-Pacific. Adopting a customised realist model tailored for this study, the paper highlights Prime Minister Narendra Modi's role in strengthening the bilateral relationship and expanding India's strategic options, alongside structural factors, such as the rise of an assertive China, which have shaped India-US security ties and led to the signing of foundational agreements.

When France Advised Syria: Cooperation as a Principle of Recognition, and its Limits

Abstract This article is a re-examination of cooperation in international relations through the example of Franco-Syrian relations between 2001 and 2004. I explore how cooperation fulfils – or not – a function of recognition, especially in the case of countries under unequal terms. Based on archival research and interviews, the article analyses three concrete moments of cooperation between Syria and France during this time. While traditional Franco-Syrian cooperation, prior to 2000, was based on a mutual recognition of partners, in the aftermath of presidential change in Syria in 2000 and within the shifting regional context, the Franco-Syrian relationship seemed to be marked by an inequality. Therefore, the article aims to capture the symbols of this recognition between France and Syria, and to study the role of cooperation not only in deepening a bilateral relationship, but – in a new perspective in international relations – in undermining it.

Dynamics of Sino-American relations: A decade-long analysis using topic modeling

Abstract. This study explores the thematic evolution of Sino-American relations over the past decade using Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) topic modeling. We compiled a comprehensive dataset of academic papers, news articles, government reports, and social media posts, focusing on themes such as economic competition, technological rivalry, military strategy, diplomatic maneuvers, and ideological conflict. Our analysis identifies key sub-topics within these themes, including trade tariffs, 5G technology, and military expenditures, providing a nuanced understanding of the factors influencing bilateral relations. Temporal trends highlight the shifting prominence of these themes, with economic competition and technological rivalry becoming increasingly salient. Additionally, the concept of financial hegemony, particularly the role of the U.S. dollar, emerges as a significant driver of U.S. policy. This study offers insights into the strategic motivations behind U.S. actions and the complex interplay of various factors in Sino-American relations.

When does China go to war? Explaining China’s Covid19-driven perceived vulnerability in 2020

ABSTRACT This paper argues that China intruded at multiple points along the LAC in May 2020 to showcase strength amidst the COVID-19 pandemic which is believed to have originated in Wuhan. COVID-19 led to large scale deaths and a global economic meltdown with Beijing severely criticized for the emergence of COVID-19 pandemic, poor regulation of the animal markets, suppressing information and failure to prevent the spread of COVID-19 beyond China’s borders. This caused immense damage to China’s international reputation and status, its economy, and relations with other countries. Border incursions by China in May 2020 were a guise to highlight China’s strength lest India consider China in a weakened state and gain leverage over Beijing in the bilateral relationship. Through border incursions, Beijing wanted to mask its vulnerability created by COVID-19 and showcase its willingness to not compromise over its security interests. China is both powerful and insecure about its status. This combination makes it undertake a particularly pessimistic security-centric outlook and more likely to engage in risky behavior. Like in the previous instances, the use of military force against India in the year 2020 stemmed from a sense of vulnerability caused by loss of status due to Covid19.

The Challenges of the New York Convention and Potential Solutions

This paper analyzes the current challenges of the New York Convention and proposes potential solutions through the actual situation and public reporting. Central to these challenges is the over-dependence on the judicial systems of the target countries, which often results in inconsistent and unreliable enforcement of international arbitration awards. This analysis identifies several key issues impacting the Convention's effectiveness: the conservative attitude of some countries in the enforcement of international arbitration, judicial corruption, the imperfection of the judicial system, and the different enforcement procedures under various judicial systems. To address these impediments, the paper explores innovative solutions inspired by successful practices from other international legal frameworks. Notably, it examines the streamlined processes of the Madrid Agreement Concerning the International Registration of Marks and various bilateral legal assistance agreements. These models provide valuable insights into simplifying procedural complexities and enhancing the uniformity of legal processes. By integrating these practices, the paper proposes actionable strategies to mitigate the current limitations of the New York Convention, aiming to bolster its role as a foundational instrument in the global arbitration landscape.

British economic strategy and regional institutions in Asia, 2016–2024

AbstractThis paper examines the British approach to Asia and its regional institutions from the Brexit vote in 2016 to the British general election of July 2024. The paper analyses official government statements and debates among political elites about Britain’s foreign policy posture in the region, from the broad ‘Indo-Pacific tilt’ and the Belt and Road Initiative to engagement with specific regional institutions such as ASEAN, BRI, AIIB, CPTPP and bilateral trade and investment agreements. It argues that approaches to regional institutions in and across Asia are driven by a combination of a dominant policy view that there is a need to engage with Asia which is becoming economically and strategically more important in a changing world, alongside a desire to decentre China in British strategic approaches to the region (partly in response to US-China strategic rivalry). However, given China’s centrality to regional economic growth in Asia, this approach creates contradictions which are rarely addressed in British policy debates. This paper will contribute not only to understanding British foreign policy, but also shed light on the evolving “new regionalism” and power dynamics across the Indo/Asia–Pacific, and how actors external to the region view and engage with the development of regional institutions in Asia.

Impact of U.S. Trade and Economic Policies on Sino-American Bilateral Relations

Since the Trump administration initiated the U.S.-China trade war in 2018, it has pushed the U.S. to adopt stronger economic and trade policy instruments against China through tariff policies, exacerbating the trend of economic decoupling between China and the U.S. and seriously affecting the normal operation of the global supply chain; the Biden administration continued some of the tariff measures against China, and was affected by the political contributions to 5G communication high-tech enterprises, semiconductors and other industries during the Biden period, and joined forces with European The Biden administration has continued some of the tariff measures against China, influenced by political contributions to 5G communications, semiconductors, and other industries during the Biden years, and has joined with European allies to push for the blockade of China's high-tech fields, and has imposed a technological embargo on China, mainly in the semiconductor and new energy fields. Within the framework of realism, the article focuses on the number of U.S. lists of Chinese entities and the sanctions and tariff increases imposed on Chinese companies, which have further led to the deterioration of bilateral relations between the U.S. and China.

Effects of simplicial centrality on robustness of higher-order multiplex world trade networks

Abstract World trade networks are exhaustively described by pairwise interactions, and overlook higher-order structure from the outcome of collective interactions at the level of groups of nodes like multilateral trade agreements. To address this limitation, \textcolor{red}{we collect multiplex world trade networks, including the bilateral regional trade agreement network, which represents pairwise interactions; the multilateral regional trade agreement network, which naturally represents a higher-order network structure; and the import and export trade network, which represents pairwise interactions and additional complexities.} The analysis of simplicial centrality, including degree, closeness, and subgraph at 0, 1, and 2-simplex \textcolor{red}{levels, reveals that intra-level correlations are high, while inter-levels may exhibit significant disparities.} Nodes with low centrality at higher-order levels could influence network robustness due to the diversity of interactions and higher-order dependencies. Simplicial centrality on robustness of multiplex world trade networks under random and targeted attacks reveals that the complex connectivity of higher-order levels renders them more vulnerable post-attack. An optimization strategy of the rebalancing of network centrality is proposed to enhance the robustness, and the simulation shows risks posed to central nodes are minimized and opportunities for peripheral nodes to partake in global trade are broadened.

Relations Between the Holy See and Lithuania: a 100-Year History

The Article provides the analysis of the relations of the Holy See and the Republic of Lithuania from the beginning of the State’s independence until the current period. At the outset, the authors give an overview of different stages and key legal issues of the development of the said relations. Further, the research deals with typical provisions and specific features of a concordat as an international agreement. The following part of the article is devoted to the analysis of the provisions of current four agreements between the Holy See and Lithuania, adding comparison with the treaties concluded by the Holy See with other two Baltic States, namely Latvia and Estonia. The research focuses on key legal issues of the cooperation between the Holy See and Lithuania with minor aspects of the intersection of the historical, political, international, and religious context. The authors conclude that in the complex international political landscape, the Holy See has remained one of the most credible partners for Lithuania and a moral authority for the nation, dominated by Catholics. The recognition of Lithuania as a State shortly after its Independence Declaration of 1918 as well as non-recognition of its 50-year occupation significantly contributed to the restoration of the State’s independence in 1990. Although the reestablishment of the independent State of Lithuania being based on the continuation of the State’s identity opened door for securing the validity of the Concordat concluded by the Holy See and the Republic of Lithuania in 1927, it was no longer capable of reflecting new realities, and new fundamental changes required the conclusion of new treaties between the parties. In 2000, the Agreement concerning Juridical Aspects of the Relations between the Catholic Church and the State, the Agreement on Cooperation in Education and Culture, and the Agreement concerning the Pastoral Care of Catholics Serving in the Army were concluded between the Holy See and the Republic of Lithuania, while in 2012, the Agreement on the Recognition of Qualifications Concerning Higher Education occurred. These bilateral agreements reflect typical provisions of concordats arising from their unique nature of combining both political (legal) and ecclesiastical matters and securing autonomy of both parties: they regulate the legal status of the Catholic Church and numerous issues, encompassing institutional matters, religious freedom, religious education, family life, cultural heritage, pastoral care, and many others. These provisions are also similar in the agreements concluded by the Holy See and other two Baltic States, all having no state religion. However, the treaties of the Holy See concluded with Lithuania and Latvia have more common and more elaborated provisions than the agreement with Estonia, while some issues are relevant and, therefore, regulated in respect of merely a particular state.

A Three-Month Clinical Trial on the Efficacy of Hyaluronic Acid Adjunctive Non-Surgical Therapy for Periodontitis in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Background/Objectives: Conventional periodontal treatment for patients with diabetes has shown promising results, primarily focusing on glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) levels as an endpoint measure. The properties of hyaluronic acid (HA) have been harnessed in various periodontal therapies, and it is a promising agent also in a non-surgical approach. The aim of this clinical trial was to assess the efficacy of hyaluronic acid in a local adjunctive non-surgical treatment for periodontitis in patients with type 2 diabetes. Methods: Eighty adult participants with well-controlled type 2 diabetes (HbA1c 7% (53 mmol/mol) or less) took part in the trial. The clinical parameters of periodontitis as well as the glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) levels were evaluated, and an analysis of the potential differences between the control (placebo) and intervention (HA) groups was performed. Results/Conclusions: A decrease in all the clinical values of periodontitis after treatment was observed in the vast majority of patients in both groups. Differences in the clinical parameters were observed 12 weeks after the intervention between the patients in the placebo and HA therapy groups. Bleeding on probing (BoP) was reduced in the control group to 15–25% and was approximately 5.5% more in the intervention group (9.5–18.25%). The clinical attachment level (CAL) decreased 1 mm more in the HA therapy group (1–2 mm) than in the no adjunctive treatment group (2–3 mm). The probing depth (PD) was reduced similarly in both groups (3–3.75 mm). Due to the bilateral relationship between diabetes and periodontitis, healthcare professionals seek advancements in managing periodontal inflammation. The results of this study indicate that non-surgical periodontal treatment with HA as an adjunctive agent is worth considering in the therapy for patients with diabetes.

Geopolitical Implications of the US-India Strategic Partnership in the Indo-Pacific Region

A geo-economics and geopolitical analysis of the shifting dynamics of the bilateral relationship between the USA and India has significant implications for the IPE in the Indo-Pacific region. This paper aims to evaluate the interaction process between the US and India, utilizing major theories related to China's emergence. This work, guided by the methodologies of realism, neoclassical realism, constructivism, and geo-economics, analyzes the strategic coordination of security defense technology and economic cooperation. It also scrutinizes how the cooperation impacts regional players such as ASEAN, Japan, and Australia, balancing the divergence of geographical perspectives and India's decoupled strategic sovereignty. The last chapter of the study analyses the transformation of the Indo-Pacific by the partnership and presents ways to advance this alliance. In fact, this paper will assist in developing a theoretical understanding regarding the great-power rivalry with the region and the importance of the bilateral partnership for the maintenance of the rule-based international order.

Recruit, integrate, and retain: Internationally educated nurses mobility to the Nordic region: A two-round policy Delphi study

The global shortage of nurses has increased the migration of internationally educated nurses (IENs) to the Nordic region, necessitating policies for their migration and workplace integration. This study aimed to identify expert opinions on migration and integration policies for IENs to inform future policy development. A two-round policy Delphi study was conducted. The first round used qualitative content analysis to identify policy statements, and the second round used a quantitative descriptive approach to validate them. Response rates exceeded 75% in both rounds. Experts identified 36 statements across six themes. High consensus policies included employer contract compliance (96.9%), credential approval (96.9%), language proficiency initiatives (96.9%), diversity, equality, inclusion and belonging (DEIB) training (87.5%), and bilateral agreements (87.5%). The study emphasizes the importance of credential recognition for IENs before migration and their ongoing professional development, highlighting the need for DEIB training for leaders.

Understanding the Republic of Malawi’s trade dynamics: A Bayesian gravity model approach

International trade enables countries to expand their markets, access more products, improve resource allocation, and boost economic growth by leveraging comparative advantage and specialization. The aim of this article is to analyze the primary factors that influence Malawi’s international trade flows. The study is relevant because it examines Malawi’s trade patterns with its main partners, which include surrounding nations and traditional trade allies. The novelty is that, through the analysis, the research offers valuable insights into the primary factors that influence Malawi’s international commerce. Panel data is gathered from various sources, including the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank, covering the period from 2000 to 2023 for 11 countries that are trading partners with Malawi. We employ the Bayesian Mindsponge gravity methodology. The results show that the economic size (characterized by the gross domestic product) of the origin and destination countries, bilateral agreements, and the population size of the destination country have a beneficial impact on Malawi’s exports. In conclusion, Malawi’s export performance is significantly enhanced by the economic size of both Malawi and its trading partners, the existence of bilateral agreements, and the population size of the destination countries, underscoring the importance of strategic economic partnerships and targeted trade policies in boosting Malawi’s international trade. We recommend Malawi authorities focus on strengthening bilateral agreements and targeting trade relationships with larger and more populous economies to boost international trade.

Geopolitical Analysis of the Shusha Declaration: Constructing Theoretical Framework in the Regional Order Context

Comprehensive relations between Türkiye and Azerbaijan, characterized by the “one nation, two states” discourse, have not only an emotional but also a rational dimension. The Shusha Declaration upgraded bilateral relations to the level of a political and military alliance on cemented rational basis. In addition to advancing of bilateral relations, the Shusha Declaration also contributed to building a new regional order in the Caucasus, Central Asia, and the entire Turkic World, legally and politically. The article attempts to construct a theoretical framework to examine the contribution of the Shusha Declaration on the regional order-building process in the context of regional power dynamics, common identity and ideology, exigent internal and external threats, domestic political transformation, political leadership, and tangible regional cooperation initiatives such as Zangezur Corridor.

Peace Brand Activism: Global Brand Responses to the War in Ukraine

Following the outbreak of the war in Ukraine in February 2022, many global brands took a stand on the crisis, which often elicited polarized consumer responses. This study explores this phenomenon—peace brand activism (PBA)—by conducting an inductive analysis of global brands’ responses to the Russia–Ukraine war as disclosed on social media channels across three different platforms: Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. The analysis highlights the range of PBA tactics that global brands employ, revealing diverse action- and statement-based forms that they can adopt, including instances of pseudo-activism. In addition, this study identifies seven key characteristics of PBA: substantiality, nature, side-taking, location specificity, responsiveness, persistence, and diversity, each manifesting across spectra of differential ends. This work elucidates the evolving role of businesses in promoting peace and offers valuable guidance for managers navigating the complex terrain of PBA, emphasizing the importance of brands being cognizant of the various PBA options and thoroughly weighing the implications of taking a stand on sensitive geopolitical issues. The findings bear important policy implications, suggesting that policy makers must consider PBA's impact on bilateral relations and collaborate with brands to develop informed, strategic PBA initiatives. Finally, the authors outline important avenues for future research.