Cycling Race Research Articles

Demands of professional female cycling races: Influence race level and race duration (single or multi-day events)

ABSTRACT This study is governed by two aims: firstly, expanding the meagre knowledge store regarding the demands set by professional female road cycling and, secondly, ascertaining whether these demands vary in relation to different race-levels and race duration (single- or multi-day events). A total of 1349 female professional road races was analysed and demands (intensity, load and performance) were determined. Races were classified based on race level (i.e. Women's World Tour [WWT], level.1 and level.2 according to the International Cycling Federation) and race duration (single- or multi-day events). Differences were assessed with a multilevel random intercept model whilst the strength of said differences were indicated by Cohen’s d (0–0.19 trivial; 0.20–0.59 small; 0.60–1.1.9 moderate; 1.20–1.99 large; ≥2.00 very large). In general, no moderate differences for load and intensity were noted for the different race levels. This result contrasts with data obtained from male road cycling. Moderate higher 3 and 5 min maximal mean power (MMP) values were noted in the WWT compared to Level.2 races. More substantial differences were found to exist between single- and multi-day races with single-day races presenting small to large higher load and intensity values. In addition, single-day races presented higher MMPs overall durations (5 s–60 min) although these differences can be rated trivial to small. This study contributes to the limited knowledge store describing demands in professional female cycling. The reported data provide valuable insights which may aid practitioners and/or coaches in preparing female professional cyclists for races. Highlights Within female professional cycling, some differences were noted in the demands (load, intensity and performances) set by different race levels. However, (in general), these differences were trivial to small, which contrasts with male professional cycling. More pronounced differences were noted in the demands set by single- and multi-day races. The load (Work done, eTRIMP and TSS) was moderate to large higher in single-day races. Differences in load are primarily caused by a combination of small higher duration and small higher intensity. No moderate differences in performance measures (i.e MMPs) were noted for different race levels or between single- and multi-day races.

Creatine Kinase and Myoglobin Plasma Levels in Mountain Bike and Road Cyclists 1 h after the Race

The aim of this study was to determine if 1 h after a cycling race, changes in plasma creatine kinase activity (CK) and myoglobin concentrations (MB) differ between mountain bike and road cyclists and if these changes show any correlation with race performance. Male mountain bike cyclists (n = 11) under 23 years old and male road cyclists (n = 14), also under 23 years old, were studied following one of their respective races. The cyclists had blood drawn 2 h before and 1 h after the race to assess CK and MB, then the change in pre- and post-race difference was calculated (ΔCK and ΔMB). Each cyclist’s performance time was recorded and the time difference from the winner was calculated (TD). The cyclists’ aerobic capacity was assessed during the incremental test, which determines maximal oxygen uptake and maximal aerobic power. It was observed that 1 h after the cycling race, CK (p = 0.001, η2 = 0.40, F = 15.6) and MB (p = 0.000, η2 = 0.43, F = 17.2) increased, compared to pre-race values. Post-race CK increased only in road cyclists, while post-race MB increased only in mountain bike cyclists. Smaller TD were found for lower ΔMB in road cyclists but for higher ΔCK in mountain bike cyclists.

Research on the Factors Influencing the Strength of Cyclists

Individual Time Trial (ITT) is a road bicycle race where cyclists race alone against the clock. To minimize the total time cost, cyclists need to focus on the output power. In this paper, we develop models to analyze the output power of cyclists determine how to adjust the output power at every position of the course. Firstly, this article collects the real data of cyclists, which is used to find the power profile related to power and duration. Reasonable expressions of different types of cyclists of different gender are also concluded. Secondly, this article considers the cyclists in competition as a constantly charged battery and discharged. FTP is the power at which cyclists can work steadily for a long time. Therefore, this article uses FTP to represent the recovery rate of cyclists approximately. There is two basis of our model. First, maintaining a steady speed is the key to reducing the total time loss in the time trial. The next basis of our model is to divide the course into three types: uphill, downhill, and sharp turn and do the force analysis. Then, this article builds up a model which tells the cyclists how to adjust output power in the whole time trial. Fatigue is also considered in our model. the model applies to two real Individual Time Trials and one course designed by us and draws the power-distance curve correspondingly. Finally, this article analyzes the potential impact of the wind. The wind will affect the cyclists' air resistance fA. The time cost at every part is calculated to determine the proposed model's accuracy. This article also analyzes the impact of improper power adjustment.

Performance Characteristics of TOP5 Versus NOT-TOP5 Races in Female Professional Cycling.

Maximal mean power output (MMP) is commonly used to describe the demands and performances of races in professional male cycling. In the female professional cyclist domain, however, there is limited knowledge regarding MMPs in races. Therefore, this study aimed to describe MMPs in female professional cycling races while investigating differences between TOP5 and NOT-TOP5 races. Race data (N = 1324) were collected from 14 professional female cyclists between 2013 and 2019. Races were categorized as TOP5 or NOT-TOP5. The MMPs were consequently determined over a range of different time frames (5s to 60min). To provide these MMPs with additional context, 2 factors were determined: when these MMPs were attained in a race (based on duration and kilojoules spent [kJspent·kg-1]) and these MMPs relative to the cyclist's season's best MMP (MMP%best). Short-duration power outputs (≤1min) were higher in TOP5 races compared with NOT-TOP5 races. In addition, the timing (both duration and kJspent·kg-1) of all MMPs was later and after more workload in the race in TOP5 compared with NOT-TOP5 races. In contrast, no difference in MMP%best was noted between TOP5 and NOT-TOP5 races. TOP5 races in female cycling are presented with higher short-duration MMPs (≤1min) when compared with NOT-TOP5 races, and cyclists were able to reach a higher percentage of their seasonal best MMP when they were able to finish TOP5. In addition, these MMPs are performed later and after more kJspent·kg-1 in TOP5 versus NOT-TOP5 races, which confirms the importance of "fatigue resistance" in professional (female) cycling.

"Dear IOC": Considerations for the Governance, Valuation, and Evaluation of Trends and Developments in eSports.

In 2021, the International Olympic Committee ventured virtual space by launching their first ever Olympic Virtual Series – featuring virtual baseball, cycling, rowing, sailing and motor racing. Interestingly, all these virtual events take strongly after their physical counterparts. Which begs the question: Where are the massively popular esports games like Fortnite, League of Legends, and Dota?–What do the Olympic Virtual Series have that these popular video games do not? Here, we argue for the inclusion of esports within the Olympic program. In many respects, esports “act” and “behave” just like traditional sports. We argue that esports and traditional sports share many of the same values, like the values of meritocracy, competition, fair play, and the value of having a “level playing field”. Yet, in esports, many of these values remain underappreciated, losing out to negative values such as physical inactivity and game-addiction. To preserve what is worth preserving, we borrow from Value Sensitive Design to ameliorate the design-tensions that are foregrounded in esports. Thereby, paving possible ways toward the inclusion of esports in the Olympic program. Ultimately, the question for the IOC should not be “does it look like ‘real sport’, as we know it?”, but rather: are they sporting, rule-led, and fair activities worth preserving and setting an example for a new digitally savvy generation?

From cobblestones to cohesion: the role of professional cycling in the development of social capital in Flanders, Belgium

Although a large literature links mass sports events to elements of social capital arena-based sports with worldwide popularity like football, no studies have previously considered whether such associations can be found for sports that are specifically popular in particular regions. Here, we focus on cycling in Belgium. During the spring of each year, a unique type of one-day professional cycling race is organised in Belgium and France: cobblestone races (e.g. Tour of Flanders). These are very popular among the public in Flanders, Belgium because of their long history and current Belgian cyclists’ strong performances in them. We focus on a key element of social capital: trust in others. Using online survey data from a long-running study by the Flemish Government (N = 33,671), we analyse whether Belgian cyclists’ performances in and television ratings of cobblestone races are associated with various types of trust among the Flemish public. Results indicate that strong Belgian performances in cobblestone races are associated with greater neighbourhood trust, while high television ratings are also associated with greater trust. Some of these effects are moderated by age and gender. We discuss the implications of our findings and avenues of future research on the role of locally popular sports in the development of social capital.

Novel echocardiographic measures of myocardial work predicts physical performance during prolonged strenuous exercise

Abstract Funding Acknowledgements Type of funding sources: Private company. Main funding source(s): The North Sea Race, Laerdal Foundation Background Cardiac function is a major determinant of physical performance. Cardiac function at rest can be assessed by novel echocardiographic parameters of myocardial work. Physical performance can be accurately measured using sensors recording the power output during exercise. There is limited data on the relationship between resting echocardiographic parameters and power measurements during strenuous endurance exercise. The aim of this work was to study the relationship between power output during exercise and echocardiographic parameters of cardiac structure and function at rest, including echocardiographic parameters of myocardial work. Method Resting echocardiographic parameters of 40 healthy, middle aged, recreational athletes, were compared with power output recordings during two episodes of endurance exercise of different duration and intensity. The first exercise was a cardiopulmonary exercise (CPX) test, which included both a lactate threshold- and a maximal oxygen uptake test. The second exercise was a 91-km mountain bike leisure sport cycling race. Power output was measured on the bikes using power meters. All study subjects were assessed by echocardiography prior to the CPX test. Coronary Computed Tomography Angiography was performed 1-2 weeks after the race to exclude obstructive coronary artery disease. Results Study participants were 51.1 ±9.7 years old (73 % men), median 10.0 (7.0-21.3) years of endurance training, and a median of 10.0 (5.0-20.0) endurance exercise competitions during the past five years. Both left ventricular mass and left atrial volume were in the upper reference range: 84.0 (77.0-96.0) gram/m2, 32.0 ±8.5 mL/m2, and the left ventricles were mildly dilated; 81.6 (69.1-96.5) mL/m2 (end-diastole). Median exercise duration: CPX: 43 (IQR 40-45) minutes, race: 236 (214-268) minutes. Mean heart rate; CPX: 145 ±11 bpm, race: 154 ± 10 bpm. Maximal oxygen uptake (Vo2 max): 41.6 ±9 ml/min/kg. Mean power output: CPX: 2.9 ±0.5 watt/kg, race: 2.1 ±0.5 watt/kg. There were strong bivariate correlations between left atrial and ventricular volumes and performance parameters (Table 1). Left ventricular global longitudinal strain (LV GLS) was correlated with Vo2 max. The myocardial work parameters global wasted work (GWW) and global work efficiency (GWE) were correlated with all performance parameters except Vo2 max. In multivariable linear regression models, except for VO2 max, GWW was the most consistent and strongest predictor of physical performance in all models (Table 2). Conclusion The novel echocardiographic parameter of global wasted work (GWW), assessed at rest, was the strongest and most consistent predictor of physical work measured by power meters during prolonged strenuous exercise.

Septuagenarians Approach 4 Times the Basal Metabolic Rate During Race Across America.

Previous data have demonstrated that Tour de France riders maintain total daily energy expenditure (TDEE) between 3.5 and 5.5 times the basal metabolic rate (×BMR). In contrast, TDEE for healthy male septuagenarians has been reported to average 1.3 to 2.0×BMR. Measure the TDEE and water efflux during ultraendurance work in an older population during the cross-continent cycling Race Across America. A 4-man septuagenarian team (70 [1.6] y, 72.0 [5.1]kg) received an oral dose of doubly labeled water prior to completing the Race Across America (4817km, 51,816m of climbing) for TDEE calculation. Nude body weight measures were coupled with collected urine samples. The race was completed in approximately 6.5days (official time: 6d, 13h, and 13min) with an average speed of 30.6 (0.7)km·h-1 (age-group course record). Body weight remained unchanged (prerace: 70.4 [5.8]kg, postrace: 70.0 [5.3]kg). TDEE was calculated over 3 race segments. TDEE varied between individual riders and segments throughout the continuous event (24.7 [4.2]MJ·24h-1, 5900 [1015]kcals·24h-1, 3.4 [0.5]×BMR). Water efflux averaged 10.2 (0.8)L·24h-1 resulting in a total turnover of 45.3 (3.9)L amounting to 1.5 (0.2) times initial total body water during the race. Highly active septuagenarians maintain body weight prerace to postrace, suggesting near energy balance when TDEE approaches 4×BMR. These values exceed twice those of previously observed healthy but less active septuagenarian men and are comparable to professional riders during portions of the Tour de France. Advanced age and high metabolic output are not mutually exclusive.

Race around the Mountain

Abstract Early accounts place the origins of bicycle racing among the Coloured population of Cape Town at the turn of the twentieth century. By 1930, an active sporting landscape had emerged that included numerous organized clubs, regular road and track events, a regional organizing board, and an established set of local racing stars. Yet as the period moved forward, competitive cycling became subject to a set of larger forces that would affect uses of urban public space, access to municipal facilities, and community support for clubs. While some aspects of this history parallel the growth of bicycle racing in the Johannesburg area, the Cape scene differed significantly. To reconstruct this history, the article attempts to not only establish a baseline for the rich set of characters and events through these years but also place them into a broader context to assess the relationship between sport and resilience under a divided system.

Breaking Away dir. by Peter Yates

Reviewed by: Breaking Away dir. by Peter Yates Sheng-mei Ma Breaking Away (dir. Peter Yates, 1979) For a Taiwanese immigrant to critique the 1979 film Breaking Away—set in the midwestern college town of Bloomington, Indiana, where the Little 500 bicycle race is held annually—may seem downright odd. Interests usually denote self-interest, however the self is defined. When I arrived at Indiana University Bloomington (IU) in 1982 for graduate studies in the English department, I soon became familiar with the film that won an Oscar (Steve Tesich's screenplay) and a Golden Globe (Best Motion Picture—Musical or Comedy). Tesich himself had been trained at IU in the 1960s; in one shot, "English Major" was intentionally scrawled across a used car's windshield. As I had just embarked on my PhD, I should have attended to the taunt: English was a useless major, now that Tesich—a Russian major—had written an award-winning script. I was introduced to the film by Boyd, an IU bus driver who ferried me to campus for classes. Boyd was a typical Hoosier, with a heavy accent that I could hardly decipher—I had enough trouble with Standard English, however "standard" is defined. Boyd obviously took certain pride in this film that depicted the town-and-gown tension. Perhaps because IU was his employer, he harbored mixed feelings about the institution that put Bloomington on the map and food on his table, while also lording over the working-class locals nicknamed "cutters" in the film. If my critique is a nostalgic trip, then it clicks nicely with the central motif of Breaking Away as a flight of fancy into a desired world beyond reach. Returning to the past morphs into a dream for the future—not just for myself, but for the film crew and viewers, past and future. Born in Yugoslavia, the screenwriter Tesich was fourteen when he came to America. A member of Phi Kappa Psi during his years at IU, Tesich seemingly would not have been a typical fit for a midwestern fraternity. Director Peter Yates was an Englishman with no connection to IU until the making of this film. Though his film ends with a freeze frame of a father looking back at his son, Yates never looked back at the Midwest for the remainder of his professional career. None of the leading actors hailed from the Hoosier State, either. Philadelphian Dennis Christopher plays local bicyclist Dave Stohler who wins the Little 500 with injured, bleeding legs and his feet taped to the pedals. Texan Dennis Quaid plays Mike, the high school [End Page 100] quarterback plagued by an inferiority complex in the face of rich frat boys. Hart Bochner, who plays the "hot rodder" Rod on the university swim team and drives a blue Mercedes convertible, is Canadian. And Robyn Douglass arrives from California to play Dave's love interest, Katherine. Clearly, outsiders "broke away" from their biological and experiential selves to fashion this universal dream of the victorious local underdog. The four "B-town boys"—Dave, Mike, Cyril (Daniel Stern), and Moocher (Jackie Earle Haley)—languish after high school graduation over a hot summer. They are confronted by the harsh reality of an "invasive species" of rich, athletic, and beautiful college students taking over Bloomington, from their favorite swimming hole in an abandoned limestone quarry to the town's streets. While Mike seethes in frustration and rage, breaking his head during a swimming duel with Rod in the quarry, Dave fantasizes an exit into an Italian alter ego. Prompted by his interest in Cinzano, an Italian bicycle racing team, Dave shaves his legs (as Italian bicyclists do) and speaks to his parents in half-baked Italian. He even goes so far as to take on the persona of an exchange student to serenade his sorority dream girl Katherine, or "Caterina" in Dave's affected Italian (replete with trilling Rs). Dave's father, Ray (Paul Dooley), is a used car salesman and a caricature of the potbellied, bacon-eating, sharpies-in-shirt-pocket Hoosier. Ray gloats over selling the worst car on his lot to a "smart college kid," which suggests that he is, subconsciously at...

Consecutive Days of Racing Does Not Affect Sleep in Professional Road Cyclists.

Professional road cycling races are physiologically demanding, involving successive days of racing over 1 to 3 weeks of competition. Anecdotal evidence indicates that cyclists' sleep duration either increases or deteriorates during these competitions. However, sleep duration in professional cyclists during stage races has not been assessed. This study examined the amount/quality of sleep obtained by 14 professional cyclists competing in the Australian Tour Down Under. Sleep was assessed using wrist activity monitors and self-report sleep diaries on the night prior to start of the race and on each night during the race. The impact of each day of the race on sleep onset, sleep offset, time in bed, sleep duration, and wake duration was assessed using separate linear mixed effects models. During the race, cyclists obtained an average of 6.8 (0.9)hours of sleep between 23:30 and 07:27hours and spent 13.9% (4.7%) of time in bed awake. Minor differences in sleep onset (P = .023) and offset times (P ≤.001) were observed during the week of racing, but these did not affect the amount of sleep obtained by cyclists. Interestingly, the 3 best finishers in the general classification obtained more sleep than the 3 worst finishers (7.2 [0.3] vs 6.7 [0.3]h; P = .049). Contrary to anecdotal reports, the amount of sleep obtained by cyclists did not change over the course of the 1-week race and was just below the recommended target of 7 to 9hours for adults.

Race Across America: First Athlete With Type 1 Diabetes to Finish Solo With Diabetes Technology Support.

Care Innovations| February 16 2022 Race Across America: First Athlete With Type 1 Diabetes to Finish Solo With Diabetes Technology Support Raimund Weitgasser 0000-0003-2013-7998 ; Raimund Weitgasser 1Department of Internal Medicine/Diabetology and Metabolism, Wehrle-Diakonissen Hospital, Salzburg, Austria2Paracelsus Medical University Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria Corresponding author: Raimund Weitgasser, raimund.weitgasser@pkwd.at Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Helmuth Ocenasek; Helmuth Ocenasek 3Institute for Sport and Health Medicine, Linz, Austria4CARDIOMED Centre for Outpatient Cardiac Rehabilitation, Linz, Austria Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Susanne Fallwickl Susanne Fallwickl 5Cardio-Pulmonary Rehabilitation, Rehabilitation Center Hochegg, Grimmenstein, Austria Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Corresponding author: Raimund Weitgasser, raimund.weitgasser@pkwd.at Diabetes Spectr 2022;35(2):227–231 https://doi.org/10.2337/ds21-0033 PubMed: 35668881 Views Icon Views Article contents Figures & tables Video Audio Supplementary Data Peer Review Share Icon Share Facebook Twitter LinkedIn MailTo Cite Icon Cite Get Permissions Citation Raimund Weitgasser, Helmuth Ocenasek, Susanne Fallwickl; Race Across America: First Athlete With Type 1 Diabetes to Finish Solo With Diabetes Technology Support. Diabetes Spectr 15 May 2022; 35 (2): 227–231. https://doi.org/10.2337/ds21-0033 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All ContentAll JournalsDiabetes Spectrum Search Advanced Search Challenges for athletes with type 1 diabetes are numerous. To find the individual balance between energy intake and consumption and adequate insulin treatment without risking severe hypoglycemia or hyperglycemia is a demanding task. Nevertheless, people with type 1 diabetes are active in various sports, both individually and as members of teams (1,2). We report on the first athlete with type 1 diabetes ever to finish solo what is probably the hardest bicycle race worldwide—the Race Across America (RAAM). The U.S. race stretches from Oceanside, CA, to Annapolis, MD, over ∼3,000 miles and 170,000 vertical feet and has to be finished within 12 days. T.H., a 53-year-old Austrian amateur cyclist working as a nurse in a retirement home, qualified for the 2018 RAAM after regular endurance bike training and competitions, as well as previous participation in marathon runs and triathlons. Diagnosed with type 1 diabetes in 2003,... You do not currently have access to this content.

Bicycling in Colombia

The introduction of the bicycle to Colombia in the 1890s provided a new method of transportation and quickly became the found ation of a new sport, road racing. Over the last fifty years, Colombian bikers have successfully competed in national and European bicycle races such as the Vuelta de Colombia, Giro de Italia, and the Tour de France. After reviewing current historiography on Colombian cycling, thi s essay traces the history of the bicycle’s introduction into the country and explores the reasons why it has become, after fútbol, Colombia’s most popular sport.

Dictatorship and Sports in Colombia

Between 1954 and 1957, Gustavo Rojas Pinilla established the only military dictator- ship to occur in twentieth-century Colombia. Although historians have analyzed the regime from a variety of viewpoints, surprisingly none of them have considered the impact of Rojas’s policy toward sport, a remarkable omission since Latin American dictators who came to power after World War II tended to promote sports as a means to legitimize their rule. After brief reviews of literature concerning twentieth-century dictators and sports, and the fragmented nature of the Co- lombian state in the 1950s, this essay examines Rojas’s career before 1953, and shows how, after achieving power, he used the annual bicycle race known as the Vuelta a Colombia and partici- pation in the 1956 Melbourne Olympic Games to enhance his regime’s acceptance. By contrast, his attempt to crush opposition during the 1956 bullfighting season exposed smoldering popular discontent to his continued heavy-handed rule and contributed to his ousting on May 10, 1957.

Power Profile of Top 5 Results in World Tour Cycling Races.

This study evaluated the power profile of a top 5 result achieved in World Tour cycling races of varying types, namely: flat sprint finish, semi-mountain race with a sprint finish, semi-mountain race with uphill finish, and mountain races (MT). Power output data from 33 professional cyclists were collected between 2012 and 2019. This large data set was filtered so that it only included top 5 finishes in World Tour races (18 participants and 177 races). Each of these top 5 finishes were subsequently classified as flat sprint finish, semi-mountain race with uphill finish, semi-mountain race with a sprint finish, and MT based on set criteria. Maximal mean power output (MMP) for a wide range of durations (5s to 60min), expressed in both absolute (in Watts) and relative terms (in Watts per kilogram), were assessed for each race type. Short-duration power outputs (<60s), both in relative and in absolute terms, are of higher importance to be successful in flat sprint finish and semi-mountain race with a sprint finish. Longer-duration power outputs (≥3min) are of higher importance to be successful in semi-mountain race with uphill finish and MT. In addition, relative power outputs of >10 minutes seem to be a key determining factor for success in MT. These race-type specific MMPs of importance (ie,short-duration MMPs for sprint finishes, longer-duration MMPs for races with more elevation gain) are performed at a wide range (80%-97%) of the cyclist's personal best MMP. This study shows that the relative importance of certain points on the power-duration spectrum varies with different race types and provides insight into benchmarks for achieving a result in a World Tour cycling race.

Evaluation of Beamsteering Performance in MultiuserMIMO Unmanned Aerial Base Stations Networks

Future wireless communication networks can benefit from Unmanned Aerial Base Stations (UABSs) to provide enhanced capacity to ground users (GU) in large and remote locations. Connecting UABSs to the terrestrial network presents several challenges, such as the limited gain traditional antennas need to maintain suitable wireless links between the core network, UABS, and GU. A convenient solution is to use MaMIMO (Massive Multiple Input Multiple Output) since it improves spectral and energy efficiency, thus providing high data rates while reducing power consumption. This paper proposes a Multi-user MIMO (MuMIMO) model for UABS aided networks to increase service range and served capacity. It uses hybrid beamforming and beamsteering on Terrestrial Base Stations (TBSs) and UABSs to grant access to mobile GU in a bicycle race scenario. Results show that using the mobile operators&#x2019; locations will benefit the backhaul network&#x2019;s performance by duplicating the capacity compared to using a private operator. Furthermore, user coverage increases by 400% if MuMIMO is used, compared to a single beam MaMIMO network. The proposed scenario could achieve a channel efficiency of 6.5 bit/s/Hz in the access network and 8.6 bit/s/Hz in the backhaul network. Finally, the average UABS transmitted power is reduced by 2/3, increasing the number of used beams.

Research of Cycling Race Strategy Based on Segment Optimization Technique

This paper examines race strategies in cycling to help athletes win. The three-parameter CP model, which is regarded to critical power CP, anaerobic work capacity AWC and the maximum duration T, and a total energy consumption model are establishment in this paper. We present a segmented optimum technique to investigate riders’ energy distribution, whose target is to obtain relative optimality in each divided tiny time period. To build a total energy consumption model, the player's functional threshold power FTP, available anaerobic work W', and fatigue effect α are all taken into account throughout each time period tk. Then we investigate two typical stages of courses: straight sections and slopes. The model is then applied to real track. The results reveal that the theoretical final time has little difference when compared to the champion's time.

Institutional Measures to Improve the Treatment of Bicycle Racers

The purpose of this paper is to identify the poor working conditions of bicycle athletes and to present institutional measures to improve them. Since the Corona Pandemic, the bicycle business has faced a serious crisis, and players who have relied solely on prize money income are seriously threatened with their livelihoods. In the following, several measures will be proposed to revive the purpose of the cycle racing business and strengthen the rights and interests of the athletes. First, the amount of prize money should be increased and the basic salary system should be introduced at the same time. Although most of the games have been suspended due to the Corona Pandemic, the players have not benefited from unemployment benefits or leave of absence benefits because they are not workers under the Labor Standards Act. The basic salary system is a minimum measure to ensure the players right to survive. Second, institutional measures should be prepared to protect injured players. The compensation system for injured players should be strengthened. And the system should be improved so that injured players can return to the game after sufficient treatment and rehabilitation. Third, the objectivity and fairness of the referee s judgment and game allocation must be secured. Fourth, for the sustainable development of bicycle racing business, the win-win stance between labor and management must be well maintained.

Impact of a Cold Environment on the Performance of Professional Cyclists: A Pilot Study.

The practice of physical activity in a variable climate during the same competition is becoming more and more common due to climate change and increasingly frequent climate disturbances. The main aim of this pilot study was to understand the impact of cold ambient temperature on performance factors during a professional cycling race. Six professional athletes (age = 27 ± 2.7 years; height = 180.86 ± 5.81 cm; weight = 74.09 ± 9.11 kg; % fat mass = 8.01 ± 2.47%; maximum aerobic power (MAP) = 473 ± 26.28 W, undertook ~20 h training each week at the time of the study) participated in the Tour de la Provence under cold environmental conditions (the ambient temperature was 15.6 ± 1.4 °C with a relative humidity of 41 ± 8.5% and the normalized ambient temperature (Tawc) was 7.77 ± 2.04 °C). Body core temperature (Tco) was measured with an ingestible capsule. Heart rate (HR), power, speed, cadence and the elevation gradient were read from the cyclists’ onboard performance monitors. The interaction (multivariate analysis of variance) of the Tawc and the elevation gradient has a significant impact (F(1.5) = 32.2; p < 0.001) on the variables (cadence, power, velocity, core temperature, heart rate) and on each individual. Thus, this pilot study shows that in cold environmental conditions, the athlete’s performance was limited by weather parameters (ambient temperature associated with air velocity) and race characteristics. The interaction of Tawc and elevation gradient significantly influences thermal (Tco), physiological (HR) and performance (power, speed and cadence) factors. Therefore, it is advisable to develop warm-up, hydration and clothing strategies for competitive cycling under cold ambient conditions and to acclimatize to the cold by training in the same conditions to those that may be encountered in competition.

Durability and repeatability of professional cyclists during a Grand Tour

ABSTRACT Durability and repeatability (i.e. the ability to sustain high power output values under fatigue and to endure repeated high-intensity efforts, respectively) are emerging as cycling performance determinants. We aimed to analyze whether these markers differ between professional cyclists of two competition levels (WorldTour [WT] and Proteam [PT]) during a Grand Tour. We studied 8 WT and 7 PT cyclists who competed in “La Vuelta 2020”. Durability was assessed with the mean maximal power (MMP) values attained between 5 sec–30 min after different levels of mechanical work done (0–35 kJ·kg−1). Repeatability was assessed as the ability to repeat efforts >95% MMP. Although no differences were found for durability during the whole race (p = 0.209), a significant interaction effect was found in separate analyses by week (p = 0.011). Thus, during the first week and in the “fresh” state (0 kJ·kg−1), WT cyclists solely attained significantly higher MMP values for 30-min efforts. However, these differences enlarged with accumulating levels of fatigue (e.g. significantly higher MMP values in WT cyclists for 30-sec, 1-min, 5-min, 20-min and 30-min efforts after 35 kJ·kg−1). On the other hand, no between-group differences were found in repeatability for the whole race (p = 0.777) or in separate analyses by week (p = 0.808). In summary, the present results support the role of durability (but not of repeatability) as a performance indicator during professional cycling races. Highlights The present study suggests that cyclists from different professional team categories (WorldTour [WT] or ProTeam [PT]) show comparable mean maximal power (MMP) values during a Grand Tour when fatigue is not considered. However, WT cyclists seem to attain greater MMP values than PT ones as the race progresses (from the first to the third week) and with accumulating levels of work done (from 0 to 35 kJ·kg−1) during a given stage. In turn, no differences were found between WT and PT cyclists in the number of high-intensity efforts (>95% of their individual MMP) performed during the race. These findings would highlight the role of durability (the ability to attenuate fatigue-induced decline in performance during prolonged exercise) as a determining factor of cycling performance.