Bicycle Commuters Research Articles

Facilitating bicycle commuting beyond short distances: insights from existing literature

ABSTRACT Growing consensus on the advantages of cycling has led policymakers to become more interested in increasing the share of bicycle commuters. Even though the bicycle’s popularity as a convenient transport mode declines with increasing distance, in recent times efforts are being made to increase the cycling distances as it may bring incremental benefits to society as a whole. As a basis to facilitate cycling for longer distances, this literature review aims to improve knowledge on what stimulates bicycle commuting beyond 5 km, by analysing both socio-psychological and physical factors. Perceived trip benefits, cycling habits, bicycle-friendly infrastructure, and e-bike usage were identified as key factors. In particular, the emergence of the e-bike could popularise bicycle commuting beyond short distances, as it has the potential to overcome physical barriers and to substitute cars for moderate trip lengths. This review also emphasises the relevance of encouraging people to cycle longer distances and discusses different tailored intervention strategies. However, further research is required to fully understand the dynamics of bicycle commuting beyond short distances. This study suggests a re-evaluation of bicycle infrastructure and technology, bicycling attitudes, and long-term behavioural change in differing (social and physical) environments, recognising that the actions identified as successful to this end vary across cycling cultures.

‘Real-world’ bicycle commuting: Characterizing the intensity and cycling routes of adults in the city of Natal, Brazil

IntroductionBicycle commuting has economic, environmental, and health benefits. However, it is not clear whether adults meet the physical activity guidelines when performing bicycle commuting in ‘real-world’ scenarios. This study aimed: (1) to verify whether adults reach the maximum heart rate percentage (%HRmax) recommended by the physical activity guidelines when doing bicycle commuting; (2) to compare the cardiorespiratory fitness of adults who meet and do not the physical activity guidelines and how they bicycle commute. MethodsIn experiment A, 20 healthy adults (25.1 ± 7.6years; 23.0 ± 1.9 kg/m2) were monitored during their habitual bicycle commuting using a Global Positioning System device with a HR monitor for one week. In experiment B, 20 healthy adults (27.8 ± 4.7years; 24.1 ± 3.1 kg/m2) were assessed (peak oxygen uptake, VO2peak; peak power output, PPO) and the following characteristics of the cycling route were compared between active and inactive individuals for one week: time commuting; distance covered; speed; %HRmax; time spent at a vigorous intensity. ResultsParticipants in experiment A cycled at a moderate intensity (68.1 ± 8.7%HRmax) and covered ~4.2 ± 2.6 km per route. Meanwhile, the active and inactive individuals in experiment B showed similar VO2peak (P > 0.05), but the active participants reached a higher PPO (P < 0.05). Active individuals spent more time cycling, covered a higher distance, cycled at a higher speed, and showed a higher %HRmax and time spent at vigorous intensity than their inactive peers (Ps < 0.01). ConclusionBicycle commuting should be encouraged for adults to meet the physical activity guidelines. Policymakers, companies, educational institutions should consider implementing measures to promote bicycle commuting.

Is the built-environment at origin, on route, and at destination associated with bicycle commuting? A gender-informed approach

There is limited evidence on the gender differences and location-specific built-environment factors associated with bicycling in Latin American cities. This study aimed to assess commuting in Bogotá by (1) analyzing the gender-specific trend of the standardized number of bicycle commuters during 2005–2017; and (2) assessing the socio-demographic, community, built-environment and natural factors associated with bicycle commuting stratified by gender. This secondary-data analysis included data from the Household Travel Surveys and Multipurpose Surveys to calculate the number of bicycle commuters per habitant from 2005 to 2017 by gender. We assessed the socio-demographic and built-environment factors fitting generalized additive models stratified by gender using the 2015 Household Travel Survey. Although both women and men increased the standardized number of bicycle commuters, male commuters show a steeper trend than women, evidencing the widening gender gap in bicycle commuting over time. Bicycle commuting was negatively associated with household motor vehicle ownership, steeper terrain slope, longer commute distance, and scarce low-stress roads at trip origin and route. Among women, the availability of bike paths at the trip destination was positively associated with bicycling, while age and being a student were negatively associated with bicycling. Among men, living in areas with the lowest socio-economic status was positively associated with bicycling, while having a driver's license and living close to bus rapid transit stations were negatively associated with bicycling. In conclusion, bicycle and transport infrastructure play different roles in commuting by bicycle by gender and trip stages (origin – route – destination).

The decision to start commuting by bicycle in Bogotá, Colombia: Motivations and influences

Bogotá has recently seen an increase in bicycle commuting with this means of transport being currently used for around 880,000 daily trips, in contrast to 475,000 in 2011. What has led bicycle ridership to nearly double in nine years and what are the factors influencing a growing number of residents to switch to bicycle commuting? Using data from an intercept survey, we analyze the personal attitudes, commuting preferences, and mode change motivations of utilitarian bicyclists (people bicycling for work, study, shopping, errands, or health). We conducted an ordered probit model and statistical tests of differences in means between four statistically different quartiles based on the time period for which they have been bicycling. Quartiles of cyclists were further divided based on socioeconomic and attitudinal characteristics into two groups: those who have recently taken up bicycle commuting (people who started bicycling 3 years ago or less) and those experienced utilitarian cyclists who adopted this mode much earlier (people who started bicycling 4 years ago or more). Results show that recent and experienced cyclists differ in how they view the bicycle as a transport vehicle: recent cyclists were more motivated to switch to bicycling for rational reasons such as saving money and shifting from a poor-quality transit system while the longer-term cyclists were more motivated by a passion for bicycling.

Trip chaining of bicycle and car commuters: an empirical analysis of detours to secondary activities

A largely overlooked mode choice factor of cycling is the mode-dependent capability of visiting several activity locations within a trip chain. Due to the bicycle’s limited reach in comparison to the car, this capability can be increased by urban environments that facilitate trip chaining by bicycle. In the present paper, we empirically study travel distances between activity locations that facilitate trip chaining by the example of Dutch commute tours. More precisely, we address the question of how much cyclists extend commute tour distances compared to car travellers to include a secondary activity. For this purpose, a Bayesian regression model is proposed to analyse the effects of travel mode, secondary activity type and a series of control variables such as age and time of the day on commute tour extensions. The model results propose that people make on average detours of 7.4 km by car and 1.3 km by bicycle. These values strongly differ depending on the type of secondary activity, gender, the distance of the home-work tour and the duration of the secondary activity. In addition, the comparison between car and bicycle travel revealed some behavioural peculiarities of the active modes, which have implications for bicycle-friendly urban planning and several transport-related concepts.

Bikeway Provision and Bicycle Commuting: City-Level Empirical Findings from the US

The growing worldwide awareness of the significant benefits of bicycling as an urban transport mode has aroused great interest in exploring the role that bikeways play in promoting utilitarian bicycling. However, few studies assess the contribution of citywide bikeway provision with the inclusion of all facility types and differentiation of facility utilities. This study provides new evidence by evaluating the collective effects of bikeway kilometers per square kilometer, bikeway kilometers per 10,000 population, and low-stress bikeway proportion on the bicycle-commuting share in 28 US cities between 2005 and 2017. Using linear panel regression models, we found that the expansion of citywide bikeway infrastructure positively influences the share of commute trips by bicycle. The results also indicated that the proportion of low-stress bikeways has a stronger impact on the bicycling-to-work share than bikeway kilometers per 10,000 population, while the impact of bikeway kilometers per square kilometer ranks last. These findings may aid policy makers and planners in formulating sound city-level bikeway policies favoring sustainable urban transportation scenarios.

Disparities in Bicycle Commuting: Could Bike Lane Investment Widen the Gap?

This article examines how bicycle commuting is associated with bike lane access and sociodemographic advantage at the block group level in twenty-two U.S. cities. Using regression models with interaction terms, I find that associations between bike lanes and bicycle commuting are stronger among more advantaged block groups, due primarily to limited bicycle commuting in disadvantaged block groups even when bike lanes are present. This indicates the importance of considering heterogeneous effects in planning research and suggests that bike lane investment, in isolation, could widen sociodemographic disparities in cycling and its benefits if non-infrastructure barriers to cycling are not also addressed.

Exposures and health impact for bicycle and electric scooter commuters in Taipei

Bicycle and scooter commuters are known to expose to more traffic-related pollutants. Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes (BTEXs), and PM2.5 were measured along four routes during rush hour and non-rush hour periods by cyclists and motorcyclists in Taipei, Taiwan. The health impacts were also evaluated using health impact modeling (HIM) approach. The average exposures of total BTEX and PM2.5 were 20.07 ppb and 23.27 μg/m3 for the cyclists and 33.96 ppb and 27.65 μg/m3 for the motorcyclists, respectively. Riding on an “alternative” route resulted in lower exposure. Scooters could contribute more to PM2.5 exposure than buses/trucks and passenger cars. Cyclists could have a lower risk of all-cause mortality and a single-pollutant HIM was found to result in underestimations. In conclusion, the number of scooters in traffic should be reduced, and commuters should be encouraged to shift from gasoline scooters to bicycles to reduce air pollution.

Potential for reduced premature mortality by current and increased bicycle commuting: a health impact assessment using registry data on home and work addresses in Stockholm, Sweden

ObjectivesThe study aims to make use of individual data to estimate the impact on premature mortality due to both existing commuter bicycling and the potential impact due to increased physical...

Studying bicyclists’ perceived level of safety using a bicycle simulator combined with immersive virtual reality

There is a need for methods that provide a better understanding of bicyclists’ perceived safety and preferences on currently unavailable and/or unknown bicycle facilities. Different survey methods have been used to study bicyclists’ behavior, experiences, and preferences; ranging from verbally described facilities to surveys including images and videos. Virtual Reality (VR) experiments blur the boundaries between stated preference (SP) surveys and revealed preference (RP) surveys and provide a realistic sense of design. This research introduces a novel research method in bicycling research and discusses the results of an experiment using a bicycle simulator combined with immersive VR. In total, 150 participants participated in this experiment and were asked about demographics and perceptions and preferences after bicycling in five different environments with an instrumented bicycle in VR. A 5 × 2 mixed design was used with bicycling environment as within-subject factor and pedestrian / traffic volume as between-subject factor. ANOVA tests revealed how each environment and ambient pedestrian / traffic volume affected perceived level of safety (PLOS) and willingness to bicycle (WTB). Pairwise comparison showed that participants felt safer bicycling on the segregated bicycle path compared to bicycling on the painted bicycle path on the road and roadside. There was no meaningful difference between WTB for less than 10 min and WTB for more than 10 min between bicycling on a painted bicycle path on the sidewalk and painted bicycle path on the road. PLOS and WTB ratings of men and women were not significantly different from each other. The older segment of the sample was more worried about roadside bicycling and bicycle commuters were more confident to ride on the roadside. Despite having several limitations, immersive 360-degree VR was found a powerful presentation tool to evaluate future street designs which can inform transport and urban planning.

Potential Effects on Travelers' Air Pollution Exposure and Associated Mortality Estimated for a Mode Shift from Car to Bicycle Commuting.

This study aims to use dispersion-modeled concentrations of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and black carbon (BC) to estimate bicyclist exposures along a network of roads and bicycle paths. Such modeling was also performed in a scenario with increased bicycling. Accumulated concentrations between home and work were thereafter calculated for both bicyclists and drivers of cars. A transport model was used to estimate traffic volumes and current commuting preferences in Stockholm County. The study used individuals’ home and work addresses, their age, sex, and an empirical model estimate of their expected physical capacity in order to establish realistic bicycle travel distances. If car commuters with estimated physical capacity to bicycle to their workplace within 30 min changed their mode of transport to bicycle, >110,000 additional bicyclists would be achieved. Time-weighted mean concentrations along paths were, among current bicyclists, reduced from 25.8 to 24.2 μg/m3 for NOx and 1.14 to 1.08 μg/m3 for BC. Among the additional bicyclists, the yearly mean NOx dose from commuting increased from 0.08 to 1.03 μg/m3. This would be expected to yearly cause 0.10 fewer deaths for current bicycling levels and 1.7 more deaths for additional bicycling. This increased air pollution impact is much smaller than the decrease in the total population.

Cycling diversity, accessibility, and equality: An analysis of cycling commuting in Bogotá

In a context of rising awareness for environmental concerns and promotion policies targeting non-motorized travel as a sustainable mobility solution, the bicycle has increasingly become an attractive transport mode in cities. However,accessibility to opportunities for people who cycle is not necessarily the same across socioeconomically different population segments, and it tends to be further constrained by high costs associated with the travel distance through the roadnetwork. This research examines equality in the accessibility to employment and education among cycle-user adults in Bogotá. Using 968 reported bicycle trips with these travel purposes in the 2015 Bogotá Household Travel Survey, we estimate a potential accessibility indicator and horizontal and vertical equality indicators. First, we identify three clusters through the K-prototypes method to classify bicycle commuters based on trip and socioeconomic characteristics, and second, we calculate potential accessibility using GIS-based trip distance decay functions, which is later assessed through equality indices such as Lorenz Curves, Gini index and Palma Ratio. Results show marked differences in potential accessibility to work and study opportunities between and within clusters, where up to 90% of the analyzed population of a cyclists' cluster has access to 30% of the job and study opportunities, indicating social and spatial inequalities produced by the urban structure and individual and household characteristics of regular cyclists. Results can guide in the implementation of accurate transport policies towards more equitable and sustainable transport in cities that are experiencing increases in bicycle ridership.

Commuter exposure concentrations and inhalation doses in traffic and residential routes of Vellore city, India

Commuting adds a significant proportion to the total PM2.5 and PM1 exposure concentration, especially in urban areas. However, spatial and inter-day variations of commuter exposure concentrations are rarely assessed in India. This study investigates the personal exposure concentration of PM2.5 and PM1 in Vellore city, India while commuting in active (pedestrian and bicycle) and motorized (motorbike, car, auto-rickshaw, and bus) transport modes. A total of 312 one-way trips were completed in urban traffic route and residential route during morning and afternoon periods to assess spatial and inter-day variations. The inhaled dose per trip and inhaled dose per kilometre travelled were also estimated using exposure concentrations, minute ventilation rates, travel time, and distance travelled. Irrespective of travel mode, PM2.5 and PM1 exposure concentrations in traffic route was consistently higher than the residential route. Morning trips were highly polluted than afternoon trips in traffic route, whereas afternoon trips registered marginally higher concentration than morning trips in the residential route. Motorized transport modes were observed with the highest exposure concentration compared to active commuters in both traffic and residential routes. Median PM2.5 and PM1 exposure concentration of motorized commuters across all routes and trips ranged from 54 to 202 and 21–153 μg m−3. Car commuters experienced the highest PM2.5 and PM1 exposure concentration. Pedestrian and bicycle commuters registered maximum inhaled doses per trip in traffic and residential routes, respectively. Also, inhaled doses per kilometre travelled in active commuters were 4–8 times higher than motorized commutes. Motorbike commuters experienced the lowest doses among all six commutes.

A database to analyze cycling routes in Medellin, Colombia.

A bicycle route questionnaire was designed to collect information about the characteristics of cyclists and the routes they take. Medellin is used as a case study in this paper due to its strong sociodemographic inequality, land use, urban form diversity, and topographical variability. The survey execution targeted bicycle commuters in the city by distributing the questionnaires online, personally by telephone, and personally on the street. These data will be useful to support strategies aiming to promote bicycling as a mode of transportation. Several types of analysis may be derived from the data, including an explanation of the factors determining the route choice and route comparisons according to the sociodemographics and locations of users. For instance, these data have already been used by Ospina et al. (2020) [1] where they sought to understand cycling travel distance in Medellin city.

Commuting patterns and bicycle level of traffic stress (LTS): Insights from spatially aggregated data in Franklin County, Ohio

This study analyzes the relationships between bicycle network design and commute mode shares in Franklin County, Ohio. We first adopt the bicycle level of traffic stress (LTS) criteria to measure bicycle network design. Then, we develop a fractional multinomial logit model to simultaneously estimate the determinants of the shares of commuters who regularly go to work by carpooling, riding public transit, bicycling, and walking. The analytical results show that increasing the proportion of low-stress road segments (LTS 2) is statistically significant and positively associated with the share of bicycle commuters at the census block group level. However, we do not observe a significant relationship between the proportion of very low-stress road segments (LTS 1) and the share of bicycle commuters. This study suggests that social and cultural relevant factors are more important predictors of reductions in automobile use as compared to those factors representing road conditions.

Modeling commuter modal shift from car trips to cycling: Scenario construction and outcomes for Stockholm, Sweden

This article presents the construction and outcomes of scenarios modeling commuter modal shift from car trips to cycling in the metropolitan region of Stockholm, the capital of Sweden. Building and improving upon previous studies in terms of both methodological approach and degree of spatial resolution of the modeling output, we examine scenarios where car commuters able to reach their workplace within 30 and 50 minutes of cycling shift commuting mode. Overall, car–bicycle modal shift figures were 31.6% and 48.7%, respectively. However, there were considerable geographical differences. While a substantial number of new bicycle commuters appeared in all five macro-level subdivisions of the study area, relative modal shift was by far the highest among car commuters living in the Inner City and its immediate surroundings.

Cycling exposure and infrastructural correlates in a Flemish adolescent population

IntroductionInfrastructure adjusted to cyclists can be used as a tool to reduce cycling crashes and injuries. To increase cycling frequency and safety, a population's cycling exposure to different infrastructure needs to be known. Since cycling behavior of adolescents cannot be compared to adults, the objective of this study is to describe the cycling exposure and the characteristics of routes used by adolescents for bicycle commuting. MethodsWe used an online travel diary to collect bicycle route information and an exposure matrix to collect cycling frequency data. Data were collected in Flanders (Belgium) from an adolescent population (15–18 years). ResultsFrom the 1345 participating adolescents, 47% used their bicycle at least once a week. Infrastructural correlates were based on 467,000 km of cycled roads with a mean trip distance of 5.7 ± 4.5 km; 91% of cycling exposure is on infrastructure with speed limits of 50 km/h or more and 32.7% on dedicated cycle lanes. Lower motorized traffic density was related to higher odds of daily bicycle commuting. Higher traffic densities or speed limits were related to lower odds of daily bicycle commuting, but this relationship disappeared after adjusting for presence of a dedicated cycle lane. ConclusionsMany adolescents who commute by bicycle cycle along streets with high speed limits and no dedicated cycle lanes probably because of the low motorized traffic densities on these roads. Adolescents should avoid roads without dedicated cycling infrastructure and high speed limits since these roads have been identified as high risk. The results are region specific and therefore this study should be replicated in other contexts.

Understanding crime and demographic influence on non-motorized trips: Macro-level analysis

ABSTRACTInterest and emphasis on non-motorized modes of transportation have been increasing in the recent years. A better understanding of factors affecting non-motorized commuting trips would enable stakeholders in non-motorized transportation to come up with relevant and cost-effective strategies to promote it. This study aims to improve the understanding on the association between non-motorized commuting trips, crime, and related demographics. Moreover, this study demonstrates an innovative approach for using yearly crime dataset (Chicago) in conjunction with the American Community Survey (ACS) dataset. ACS dataset contains data pertaining to non-motorized commuting trips and important socioeconomic characteristics. An unsupervised data mining technique called Self-Organizing Map (SOM) was used to find association between different factors as it does not require any prior assumptions. The findings show that areas with lower income households are associated with high pedestrian and bicycle commuting. A negative association between crime and non-motorized commuting was also identified. The results also show that areas with larger youth populations are likely to have high non-motorized commuting trips. This study provides insights into the ongoing state-of-the-art study designs and analysis methods associated with non-motorized travel mode.

Health economic assessment of a scenario to promote bicycling as active transport in Stockholm, Sweden

ObjectivesTo conduct a health economic evaluation of a proposed investment in urban bicycle infrastructure in Stockholm County, Sweden.DesignA cost-effectiveness analysis is undertaken from a healthcare perspective. Investment costs over a...

Dose-response association of workplace facilities and policies with commuter bicycling among adults

IntroductionThe objective of this study was to examine the association between workplace facilities and policies with bicycle commuting, and to test interactions by gender, among a convenience sample of adult bicyclists from Austin, TX, and Birmingham, AL. MethodsAdults aged 18-65 who rode a bicycle in the past year completed an internet-based survey designed to assess potential correlates of bicycling behavior. Participants who reported having ridden a bicycle for transportation in the past year for the purpose of commuting to/from work were categorized as a bicycle commuters. Workplace facilitators assessed included policies that supported biking to work, bicycle lockers, locked rooms/cage, clothes storage, bike racks, and showers. A summary score ordinal variable was derived by adding the total number of reported workplace facilitators per participant. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression models were conducted to identify the association between each of the workplace facility/policy variables and being a bicycle commuter. ResultsThe final analytic sample was of 760 participants employed full- or part-time. All assessed facilitators were significantly directly associated with being categorized as a bicycle commuter in multivariable logistic regression models adjusting for covariates (p<0.05). As compared to no facilitators, 1 facilitator was associated with 2.06 times higher odds of being a bicycle commuter (95% CI:1.63-2.59), 2 facilitators was associated with 2.79 times higher odds of being a bicycle commuter (95% CI:2.00-3.88), 3 facilitators was associated with 4.16 times higher odds of being a bicycle commuter (95% CI:3.80-4.56), and 4 or more facilitators was associated with 7.55 times higher odds of being a bicycle commuter (95% CI:7.36-7.75). No significant interactions between each of the workplace facilitators and gender were observed. Conclusions: Companies that desire to encourage active transportation among their employees should consider how the workplace infrastructure and culture can be changed to support this behavior.