Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve Research Articles

Potential evolutionary body size reduction in a Malagasy primate (Propithecus verreauxi) in response to human size‐selective hunting pressure

AbstractObjectivesThe Holocene arrival of humans on Madagascar precipitated major changes to the island's biodiversity. The now‐extinct, endemic “subfossil” megafauna of Madagascar were likely hunted by early human inhabitants. Perhaps in part due to preferential hunting of larger prey, no surviving endemic species on Madagascar is >10 kg. Moreover, some subfossil bones of extant lemurs are considerably larger than those of the modern members of their species, but subfossil versus modern locale differences for the comparisons conducted to date lead to uncertainty about whether these size differences reflect in situ change or pre‐existing ecogeographic variation. Here, we revisited this question with samples from nearby locales.Materials and MethodsWe used high‐resolution 3D scan data to conduct comparative morphological analyses of subfossil and modern skeletal remains of one of the larger extant lemurs, Verreaux's sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi) from subfossil and modern sites only ~10 km apart: Taolambiby (bones dated to 725–560—1075–955 cal. years before present) and Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, respectively.ResultsThe mean aggregate score for all subfossil elements (n = 12; 0.089 ± 0.117) is significantly greater than that for the modern individuals (n = 31; 0.009 ± 0.045; t‐test; p = 0.039). We found that the average subfossil sifaka bone is ~9% larger than that of modern sifakas (permutation test p = 0.037).DiscussionWe cannot yet conclude whether this size difference reflects evolutionary change or an archaeological aggregation/taphonomic process. However, if this is a case of phyletic dwarfism in response to human size‐selective harvesting pressures then the estimated rate of change is greater than those previously calculated for other archaeological cases of this phenomenon.

Agonistic vocalization behaviour in the male ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta).

Vocalizations are used by group-living animals as aggressive and submissive signals during agonistic interactions, and are also used to maintain dominance hierarchies in many species. For gregarious strepsirrhines with large vocal repertoires and differentiated dominance ranks like the ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta), agonistic vocalization use is important to study to better understand their social adaptations.To determine whether ring-tailed lemur vocalizations such as the yip, cackle, twitter, chutter, and plosive bark were used as aggressive or submissive signals during agonism and uttered at different rates by males of differing dominance ranks and ages, 565 h of focal data were collected on 31 individual males aged ≥ 1 year from Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, Madagascar. Yip, cackle, and twitter vocalizations were consistently used during agonistic submissive interactions with both males and females, chutter vocalizations were used during aggressive agonistic interactions with males and submissive agonistic interactions with males and females, and plosive bark vocalizations were used across behavioural contexts but not particularly during agonism. Males of all ages employed all vocalizations, and while low-ranking males uttered yip calls at higher rates, males of all dominance ranks uttered cackle, twitter, chutter, and plosive bark vocalizations. These results advance our knowledge of how male lemurs utilize agonistic vocalizations to maintain inter-individual relationships with males and females, and improve our overall understanding of the function of different agonistic vocalizations in wild lemurs.

Plant Species Fed on by Wild Ring-Tailed Lemurs (Lemur catta) at Nine Sites

A key aspect of a primate’s ecology is its food source, the very nature of which is spatially and seasonally dependent and may be affected by anthropic pressures. One of the most endangered, yet best-studied, strepsirrhine primates is the ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta), a species that has experienced significant human-induced habitat loss over many decades. To help understand feeding variability across time and space, I present a literature review of plant species (and parts) fed on by ring-tailed lemurs at nine sites in Madagascar: Ambatotsirongorongo, Andringitra Massif, Anja Reserve, Antserananomby, Berenty Reserve, Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, Cap Sainte-Marie, Tsaranoro Valley Forest, and Tsimanampetsotsa National Park. I gathered literature using keyword searches on Google Scholar ( https://scholar.google.com/ ) and verified scientific names using the “Catalogue of the Plants of Madagascar” ( http://legacy.tropicos.org/Project/Madagascar ). From 24 studies, I identify 221 genera and 241 species of consumed plants, with 92 genera and 70 species consumed at two or more sites. Based on the available distribution data, 63% of species are endemic and 22% native. Sixty-seven plants are known only by Malagasy common names and excluded from analyses. When authors identify the plant tissue consumed, 52% of species in the diet are represented by a single tissue type, typically leaves (mature and immature) or fruit (ripe or unripe). This review highlights the importance of studying multiple populations when creating dietary summaries of species and should prove valuable to those exploring ecological trends and habitat use by ring-tailed lemurs.

Affiliative Contact Calls during Group Travel: Chirp and Wail Vocalization Use in the Male Ring-Tailed Lemur (Lemur catta)

Affiliative vocalizations occur across primate taxa and may be used to maintain spatial cohesion and/or to regulate social interactions in group-living species. For gregarious strepsirhines like the ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta), with large vocal repertoires and several distinct affiliative vocalizations including the chirp and wail, it is important to understand behavioural usage of these vocalizations to gain insight into their social interactions. To determine whether chirp and wail vocalizations facilitate group cohesion, regulate interactions to achieve socially positive outcomes, and are correlated with differences in individual characteristics such as dominance rank and age, I collected 565 h of focal data on 31 males aged ≥1 year at Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, Madagascar, from March to July 2010. I found that chirp and wail vocalizations occurred at the highest rates during group-wide travel compared to other behaviours. Although nearest neighbour distance did not influence calling rate, focal animals maintained the same distance or were located closer to nearest neighbours after calling. Both chirp and wail calls were heard in behavioural contexts without agonism rather than agonistic contexts. No relationship was found between male calling rate and dominance rank or age, although the chirp showed a non-significant tendency to be produced at higher rates by younger males. Overall, my results indicated that ring-tailed lemur males of all ages and dominance ranks used both chirp and wail vocalizations as contact calls during group-wide travel events, helping individuals maintain proximity to other group members during movement. Chirp and wail vocalizations may additionally help regulate the caller’s social interactions and promote increased tolerance from conspecifics. These findings add to our understanding of the breadth of communication behaviour in wild lemurs, thus furthering our knowledge of the social lives and cognitive abilities of strepsirhines. Through examining the complexity of vocalization use by a living lemur species with a communication system much like early social primates, we gain broad insight into the evolution of primate sociality.

Taxonomic identification of Madagascar’s free-ranging “forest cats”

Madagascar does not have native wild felid species; however, distinct populations of free-ranging “forest cats” of unknown species are known throughout the island, including at Ankarafantsika National Park, Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, Makira Natural Park and the Masoala peninsula. Malagasy “forest cats” are commonly considered invasive lemur predators and competitors with endemic carnivores as well as a nuisance exotic species that kill poultry. These cats may be descendants of African wildcats, European wildcats and/or domestic cats; however, no research on their genetic origin has been published. To determine their taxonomic status, genetic data from short tandem repeat markers was assessed for three wild-caught “forest cats” from the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve (BMSR) and 27 “forest cats” from Ankarafantsika National Park. Bayesian analyses comparing the Malagasy “forest cats” to approximately 1900 domestic and wildcat sub-species suggest the Malagasy cats are descendents of domestic cats from the Arabian Sea region, including the islands of Lamu and Pate, Dubai, Kuwait and Oman. Additional genetic influences may descend from India and Pakistan. Combined with cultural and historical information, these data suggest that these felid populations are likely descendents from cats that immigrated to the island on trade ships, particularly along early Arab trade routes.

Contact calling behaviour in the male ring‐tailed lemur (Lemur catta)

AbstractThe ring‐tailed lemur (Lemur catta) is a group‐living strepsirhine primate endemic to Madagascar that has a complex vocal repertoire including affiliative moan and hmm calls. Past research has suggested that both vocalisations may be contact calls, and we assessed their usage in addition to examining the effect of individual differences and social factors on male calling behaviour. We tested three hypotheses: the group cohesion, preferred companion and individual differences hypotheses. From March to July 2010, 565 h of focal animal data were collected on 31 males aged ≥1 year at the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, Madagascar. Focal males were observed for 30 min, with vocalisations, allogrooming and agonistic interactions noted using one‐zero sampling, and general behaviour, nearest neighbour identity and distance noted using instantaneous point sampling, all at 2.5 min intervals. We found support for the group cohesion hypothesis for both vocalisations, and support for the preferred companion and individual differences hypotheses for the hmm but not the moan vocalisation. Moan and hmm calls maintained the distance between a male and his nearest neighbour, and were made at higher rates during behaviours which may lead to separation from conspecifics, such as travel and vigilance. Males made hmm calls at higher rates when they were low‐ranking, and/or when the nearest neighbour of a male or a preferred companion of either sex. Low‐ranking males may hmm call to maintain proximity to specific individuals within social groups who will show them increased tolerance, with the hmm signalling peaceful intent. Ring‐tailed lemurs are one of the best living models of gregarious primate ancestors, and gaining a better knowledge of the function and range of usage of their contact calls informs our understanding of the evolution of primate cognition.

A simple, economical protocol for DNA extraction and amplification where there is no lab

Genetic analyses are well suited to address many research questions in the study of wild populations, yet species of interest often have distributions that are geographically distant from molecular laboratories, necessitating potentially lengthy transport of biological specimens. Performing basic genetic analyses on site would avoid the project delays and risks of sample quality decline associated with transport, as well as allow original specimens to remain in the country of origin. Further, diagnostic genetic assays performed in the field could provide real-time information allowing for more nimble adjustments to research plans and use of resources. To this end, we developed protocols for reliably performing front-end genetics bench work in the field, without the requirements of electricity or permanent shelter. We validated these protocols on buccal swabs collected during routine capturing of sifaka lemurs (Propithecus verreauxi) at Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve in Southwest Madagascar and faecal samples collected from captive sifakas (P. coquereli) at the Duke Lemur Center. Our basic protocol pipeline involves a chelating resin based DNA extraction followed by whole genome amplification or polymerase chain reaction using reagents stored at ambient temperature and portable, compact equipment powered by a lightweight solar panel. We achieved a high success rate (>80%) in downstream procedures, demonstrating the promise of such protocols for performing basic genetic analyses in a broad range of field situations.

Male-Specific Use of the Purr in the Ring-Tailed Lemur (Lemur catta)

In mammals, purring has been described in mostly affiliative contexts. In the ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta), both males and females purr, but only males were observed purring in agonistic contexts. In order to determine whether male ring-tailed lemurs purr as aggressive displays during intrasexual agonistic encounters, 480 h of focal data were collected on 25 adult males from Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, Madagascar, from March to July 2010. The male purring rate increased during periods of male-male agonism when compared to times without intrasexual agonism, and the purring rate was positively correlated with male dominance rank. However, the purring rate was not significantly higher during winning agonistic interactions when compared with losing encounters. My results indicate that the male ring-tailed lemur purr is used most frequently as an agonistic vocalization in male-male encounters, in addition to being used less frequently in other social contexts, including during tail-waving at females, resting, scent-marking, feeding and copulation. Dominant males have higher purring rates across social situations, suggesting that the purring rate may be driven by intrinsic male qualities rather than functioning as a meaningful signal in each disparate social context. Male purring in intrasexual agonistic encounters can be added to previously described social contexts for ring-tailed lemur purring.

Stable isotopes complement focal individual observations and confirm dietary variability in reddish-gray mouse lemurs (Microcebus griseorufus) from southwestern Madagascar.

We examine the ecology of reddish-gray mouse lemurs from three habitats at Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve using focal follows and stable carbon and nitrogen isotope data. Focal observations indicate dietary differences among habitats as well as sexes and seasons. Both sexes consume more arthropods during the rainy season but overall, females consume more sugar-rich exudates and fruit than males, and individuals from riparian forest consume fewer arthropods and more fruit than those in xeric or dry forest. We ask whether these observations are isotopically detectable. Isotope data support differences between seasons and sexes. Nitrogen isotope values are higher during the rainy season when lemurs consume more arthropods, and higher in males than females, particularly during the dry season. However, differences among populations inferred from focal observations are not fully supported. Lemurs from riparian forest have lower isotope values than those in xeric scrub, but isotope data suggest that lemurs from the dry forest eat the least animal matter and that focal observations overestimated dry forest arthropod consumption. Overall, our results suggest that observational and isotopic data are complementary. Isotope data can be obtained from a larger number of individuals and can quantify ingestion of animal matter, but they apparently cannot quantify the relative consumption of different sugar-rich foods. Combined focal and isotope data provide valuable insight into the dietary constraints of reddish-grey mouse lemurs, with implications for their vulnerability to future habitat change.

Seasonal patterns of male affiliation in ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) in diverse habitats across southern Madagascar

We examined the mechanisms guiding male affiliative relationships among ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) to investigate the adaptive significance of male social bonds in a female dominant, strictly seasonally breeding strepsirhine primate. To test whether male affiliative relationships were driven by reproductive and/or ecological conditions, we compared the frequency of male affiliation across the annual reproductive cycle in populations of L. catta inhabiting three habitat types found within its geographic range: (1) gallery forest at Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve in southwestern Madagascar; (2) spiny bush at Cap Sainte-Marie (CSM) in southern Madagascar; and (3) rocky-outcrop forest fragments at Anja Reserve and the Tsaranoro Valley in Madagascar’s south-central highlands. Each study period spanned the gestation, lactation/migration, post-migration, and mating periods. Inter-male affiliation rates varied across reproductive periods at each of the four sites, with the highest frequencies being observed during the gestation and lactation/migration periods and the lowest frequencies occurring during the mating period. In contrast, we found no clear patterns in male–female affiliation rates with respect to reproductive period. Comparing the Beza Mahafaly and CSM populations, rates of inter-male affiliation were higher at CSM during the gestation and lactation/migration periods, and rates male–female affiliation were higher at CSM across all seasons except the post-migration period. We suggest that inter-male affiliative relationships in L. catta may provide beneficial social interactions (i.e., grooming, ectoparasite control, predator protection, vigilance against extra-group male agonism) when females are unavailable, particularly during male dispersal, as well as under harsh climatic conditions characteristic of some L. catta habitats.

Verreaux’s sifaka (<i>Propithecus verreauxi</i>) and ring-tailed lemur (<i>Lemur catta</i>) endoparasitism at the Bezà Mahafaly Special Reserve

As hosts, primate behavior is responsible for parasite avoidance and elimination as well as parasite acquisition and transmission among conspecifics. Thus, host behavior is largely responsible for the distribution of parasites in free - ranging populations. We examined the importance of host behavior in acquiring and avoiding parasites that use oral routes by comparing the behavior of sympatric Verreaux’s sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi) and ring - tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) inhabiting the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve (BMSR) in Madagascar. For each species, two groups lived in a protected parcel and two groups lived in anthropogenically - disturbed forests. Analysis of 585 fecal samples revealed that the BMSR ring - tailed lemurs harbored six species of nematode worms and three species of protistan parasites. The sifaka harbored only two nematodes. Differences in richness and prevalence appear to be linked to host behavior and the ecological distribution of their parasites. To understand the interplay between behavioral mechanisms to avoid or transmit parasites, we analyzed 683 hours of behavioral observations. BMSR ring - tailed lemurs were observed on the ground significantly more than sifaka and this terrestrial substrate use provides greater opportunities for soil - transmitted parasites to acquire a host. Ring - tailed lemurs using the anthropogenically - disturbed forests harbored parasites not found in the groups inhabiting the protected parcel which they may be acquiring via coprophagy or contact with feces. The arboreality of sifaka allows them to evade most soil-transmitted endoparasites and the patterns of parasitism exhibited by sifaka living in the anthropogenically - disturbed forests did not deviate from the patterns observed among the sifaka living in the protected parcel.

Partnership in practice: making conservation work at Bezà Mahafaly, southwest Madagascar

Beza Mahafaly has been the site of a partnership for conservation since 1975, long before the idea of community - based conservation became widely accepted in Madagascar or elsewhere in the world. Today, the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve protects 4,600 ha of riverine, transitional and spiny forest with a rich endemic fauna. This paper provides a summary of the thirty - seven year history of the initiative, focusing on three issues: our evolving interpretation of the term ‘community’, the integral role of politics and economics in developing the partnership, and the linkage between local, regional and national influences that were experienced in some contexts as constraints and in others as opportunities. We draw five conclusions that we hope will be of interest to those engaged in similar activities in Madagascar and elsewhere: (i) the importance of relationships and trust, and the length of time it takes to build both; (ii) the inherent fragility of community - based collaborations, which depend heavily on particular individuals and the pressures on people’s lives; (iii) the importance of sustained financial inputs and challenge of diversifying these inputs; (iv) the need for mechanisms to distribute costs and benefits that are accepted as fair, and for methods to track that distribution; and (v) the central roles of improvisation and opportunism in the face of high levels of uncertainty, and the unanticipated key role played by a village-based environmental monitoring team.

Squealing rate indicates dominance rank in the male ring‐tailed lemur (Lemur catta)

Squeals are sharp and forceful short-range vocalizations used as aggressive and submissive agonistic signals by many mammalian species. The ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta), a female-dominant strepsirhine primate, has a male-specific squeal call with proposed male-male agonistic functions and male-female courtship functions that have never been empirically tested. The goal of my study is to clarify why ring-tailed lemur males squeal at other males and females by applying the handicap hypothesis to this male-specific vocalization. This hypothesis has rarely been tested in primates, and this study elucidates how the rate of a male-specific call relates to male-male and male-female behavior in a Malagasy strepsirhine. To test whether males squeal towards other males to assert dominance, I predict that male squealing rate is positively correlated with dominance rank. I further predict that male ring-tailed lemurs squeal at other males while engaged in agonistic interactions, and that squealing during an interaction is positively correlated with winning that encounter. To test whether males squeal towards females as a mate attraction signal, I predict that male squealing rate is higher on estrus days, and that estrous females indicate attraction by approaching squealing males. From March to July 2010, 480 hr of focal data were collected on 25 males aged three and older at Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, Madagascar. I continuously observed each male for 30 min at a time and recorded all agonistic interactions and squeal vocalizations using 1-0 sampling at 2.5-min intervals. Squealing rate was higher during times of male-male agonism when compared to times without male-male agonism, and males with higher dominance ranks had higher squealing rates. In contrast, the mate attraction hypothesis was not supported. My results suggest that the male squeal is an agonistic signal when used in male-male interaction in ring-tailed lemurs, but does not specifically indicate aggression or submission.

A NewAfromochtherusLehr, 1996 from Madagascar (Diptera: Asilidae: Asilinae)

Afromochtherus nesomyia sp. n. is described from Madagascar (Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, Toliara Province) and notes are provided relating to A. annulata (Martin, 1964), the only other species of Afromochtherus Lehr, 1996 known from the island. A key for the separation of these two species is provided.

The Function of Howling in the Ring-Tailed Lemur (Lemur catta)

Long calls are sex-specific vocalizations used for mate attraction or mate defense in many animal species. Ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta), female-dominant strepsirrhines, have a male-specific long call termed a howl, with proposed functions that have never been empirically tested. I aimed to investigate why ring-tailed lemur males howl and to test whether the mate defense and mate attraction hypotheses for long-calling were applicable to this species. From March to July 2010, I collected 600 h of focal data on 25 males aged ≥3 year at Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, Madagascar. I observed each male continuously for 30 min at a time and noted all agonism using one–zero sampling at 2.5-min intervals. I calculated male dominance rank from these data. I recorded days when female estrus occurred and noted howling and intergroup encounters using all-occurrences sampling. Howling rate was not significantly related to female estrus or male dominance rank, providing no support for the mate attraction hypothesis or the intragroup mate defense hypothesis. In contrast, the intergroup mate defense hypothesis was strongly supported. During intergroup encounters, male howling rate significantly increased compared to howling rate at times without other groups present, and a greater number of males participated in multimale howling choruses when compared to times without nongroup members present. My results suggest that male ring-tailed lemurs howl to advertise their presence and location to other groups, but not to male or female members of their own group. Howling could discourage male immigration by advertising the number of males already present in a group. Long calls are used for similar mate defense purposes during intergroup encounters by other primates, including Thomas langurs (Presbytis thomasi) and chacma baboons (Papio ursinus).

Biological variation in a large sample of mouse lemurs from Amboasary, Madagascar: Implications for interpreting variation in primate biology and paleobiology

A thorough knowledge of biological variation in extant primates is imperative for interpreting variation, and for delineating species in primate biology and paleobiology. This is especially the case given the recent, rapid taxonomic expansion in many primate groups, notably among small-bodied nocturnal forms. Here we present data on dental, cranial, and pelage variation in a single-locality museum sample of mouse lemurs from Amboasary, Madagascar. To interpret these data, we include comparative information from other museum samples, and from a newly collected mouse lemur skeletal sample from the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve (BMSR), Madagascar. We scored forty dental traits (n = 126) and three pelage variants (n = 19), and collected 21 cranial/dental measures. Most dental traits exhibit variable frequencies, with some only rarely present. Individual dental variants include misshapen and supernumerary teeth. All Amboasary pelage specimens display a “reversed V” on the cap, and a distinct dorsal median stripe on the back. All but two displayed the dominant gray–brown pelage coloration typical of Microcebus griseorufus. Cranial and dental metric variability are each quite low, and craniometric variation does not illustrate heteroscedasticity. To assess whether this sample represents a single species, we compared dental and pelage variation to a documented, single-species M. griseorufus sample from BMSR. As at Amboasary, BMSR mouse lemurs display limited odontometric variation and wide variation in non-metric dental traits. In contrast, BMSR mouse lemurs display diverse pelage, despite reported genetic homogeneity. Ranges of dental and pelage variation at BMSR and Amboasary overlap. Thus, we conclude that the Amboasary mouse lemurs represent a single species – most likely (in the absence of genetic data to the contrary) M. griseorufus, and we reject their previous allocation to Microcebus murinus. Patterns of variation in the Amboasary sample provide a comparative template for recognizing the degree of variation manifested in a single primate population, and by implication, they provide minimum values for this species' intraspecific variation. Finally, discordance between different biological systems in our mouse lemur samples illustrates the need to examine multiple systems when conducting taxonomic analyses among living or fossil primates.

Social influences on the development of ringtailed lemur feeding ecology

As they grow, young individuals can use both social and individual learning strategies to develop speciestypical feeding ecology, and the utility of these strategies may vary phylogenetically and with environmental stability. Focused learning from mothers and other group members is critical in monkeys, with behaviours such as co-feeding playing strong roles in determining postweaning survival. While adult lemurs are capable of social learning, it is unknown how social information is incorporated during the development of feeding or what social learning strategies are used in this process. Here we evaluate the use of social learning behaviours and the potential for social learning in young ringtailed lemurs, Lemur catta, at the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, Madagascar. We show that infant and juvenile ringtailed lemurs use basic and generalized stimulus enhancement that occurs through behavioural synchrony with older nearest neighbours. More focused co-feeding occurred at low levels, and many of the social learning behaviours observed in the other social primate taxa were absent. High levels of individual exploration also contributed to learning, evidenced through high dietary diversity in juveniles relative to other group members. Our observations are consistent with the idea that simple social learning rules are responsible for the development of ecological complexity in many generalist vertebrate species, and that more complicated learning behaviours may not be necessary to learn complex and varied diets.

Notes on bat diversity at Berenty Private Reserve and Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve in southern Madagascar

Surveys of bat diversity are rare for the southern domain of Madagascar. Mistnetting for bats took place at Berenty Private Reserve in southeastern Madagascar during a six months study in 2009 and at Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve in southwestern Madagascar for one month in 2011. At Berenty, Hipposideros commersoni, Triaenops rufus, Myotis goudoti, and Miniopterus spp. were captured along trails and clearings inside forests. Two bats, T. rufus and Miniopterus sp., were captured near the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve. These captures increase the known bat diversity reported for both sites, but more surveys at Berenty and Beza Mahafaly are recommended.

Survival of a wild ring-tailed lemur (<i>Lemur catta</i>) with abdominal trauma in an anthropogenically disturbed habitat

Soft tissue injuries are rarely reported in wild primates as these heal fast, are not obvious, and are rapidly scavenged or decompose after death. An adult female ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta) was found to have a chronic gastrointestinal fistula in Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, Madagascar. She was observed monthly for 13 months until her remains, which showed evidence of dog predation, were found. Until then, she was in good body condition, had gained weight from the previous year and was observed to exhibit normal behaviour and produce an infant. This report documents a wild strepsirrhine primate able to survive significant soft tissue injury in ananthropogenically disturbed habitat.RÉSUMÉIl est rare que des blessures dans les tissus mous soient signalés chez les primates vivant à l’état sauvage car ces blessures guérissent rapidement, sont moins visibles ou que les animaux eux-mêmes se décomposent ou sont rapidement mangés par d’autres animaux après leur mort. Une femelle adulte de lémur catta (Lemur catta) a été trouvée avec une fistule gastro-intestinale chronique. Elle avait été observée vivante tous les mois pendant 13 mois avant que nous ne trouvions son cadavre, qui montrait des signes de prédation par de chiens. Jusque - là, elle étaiten bonne condition physique, avait pris du poids par rapport à l’année précédente, montrait un comportement normal et avait donné naissance à un petit. Ce rapport documente une lésion grave des tissus mous sur un Prosimien qui a été capable de survivre dans un habitat perturbé par l’homme.

Understanding Eocene primate palaeobiology using a comprehensive analysis of living primate ecology, biology and behaviour

The comparative method is central to interpretations of Eocene primate palaeobiology. This method rests upon a thorough study of analogous living forms. With a rapidly increasing knowledge of such forms, most notably the Malagasy lemurs, our ability to advance the study of Eocene primate ecology, biology and behaviour far exceeds that of even just a few years ago. Here we present such a comparison. Based on our data collected from both living lemurs and extant lemur skeletal specimens, we are able to make a number of comparisons that provide insight into middle Eocene primate ecology and palaeobiology. At the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, Madagascar, omnivorous living ring-tailed lemurs that feed on large, hard and tough fruits display a pattern of frequent post-canine tooth wear laterality (62 %) when compared to sympatric, folivorous Verreaux’s sifaka (4 %). Our results indicate that Notharctus does not display a high frequency of tooth wear laterality (7 %), indicating folivory without processing large, hard fruits with its postcanines. Our data on Notharctus tooth wear also indicate, similar to living ring-tailed lemurs at Beza Mahafaly, that numerous individuals (21 %) survived long enough to experience heavy tooth wear, contrary to the assumption that heavy tooth wear leads to the rapid death of the individual. Finally, our data on trauma and injury from a living lemur population suggest that the reported wrist injury in Darwinius masillae (i.e. “Ida”) did not necessarily lead to her death, as numerous ring-tailed lemurs at Beza Mahafaly survive with similar or even more traumatic injuries and maintain the ability to climb. Thus, our data from living primates provide a broad comparative framework for interpreting the ecology, biology and behaviour of Eocene forms.