Berry Set Research Articles

EFFECT OF SOME AZOSPIRILLUM STRAINS AS A PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF INORGANIC N FERTILIZERS ON YIELD AND QUALITY OF SUPERIOR GRAPEVINES

About 91 mutants were obtained from exposing Azospirillum brasilense to different concentrations of Acriflavine mutagen and different time exposure. Out of those three new N microbial strains namely Methionineless, Threonineless and Tyrosineless were tested on Superior grapevines after their showed highest growth on artificial media. Superior grapevines were supplied with these microbial strains at 5 to 20 ml/vine and three slow release fertilizers (Methylene urea, Sulphur coated urea and urea formaldehyde) at 25 to 75% as partial replacement of the fast release N fertilizer namely ammonium nitrate during 2015 and 2016 seasons. Supplying Superior grapevines with N through 50 to 75 % inorganic N + 25 to 50% slow release N fertilizers (Methylene urea, Sulphur coated urea and urea formaldehyde) + bacteria strains (Methionineless, Threonineless and Tyrosineless) at 5 to 10 ml/vine proved to be very effective in stimulating all growth traits, leaf pigments and nutrients , berry setting %, yield and quality of the berries relative to using N as 100 % mineral N or when mineral N was added at 25%. An obvious reduction was observed on both nitrate and nitrite in the juice, with reducing percentages of mineral N from 100 to 25% as well as increasing percentages of the three release N fertilizers from 25 to 75% and the three bacterial strains from 5 to 20 ml/vine. The best bacterial strains in this respect were Methionineless, Theronineless and Tyrosineless, in ascending order. The best slow release fertilizer was methylene urea followed by sulphur coated urea. Amending Superior grapevines with N as 50% inorganic N (ammonium nitrate) + 50% slow release N fertilizer (methylene urea) + Tyrosineless at 10 ml/vine was responsible for promoting yield and fruit quality.

Response of Red Globe Grapevines to Spraying Barley Seed Sprout and Silicon

The effects of spraying barley seed sprout and/ or potassium silicate each at 0.025 to 0.1% on fruiting of Red Globe grapevines was examine during 2015 and 2016 seasons. The selected vines were sprayed three times with such two stimulants. Barley seed sprout and potassium silicate each at 0.025 to 0.1% single and combined applications improved growth aspects, leaf pigments, some nutrients, berry setting %, yield and fruit quality compared to the control treatment. Using combined applications was superior to using each alone.The effect on these parameters depended on increasing concentrations. Spraying a mixture of barley seed sprout and potassium silicate three times each at 0.05% improved yield and quality of Red Globe grapevines under Minia conditions.

Anthocyanins pattern variation in relation to thinning and girdling in commercial Sugrathirteen ® table grape

Abstract There is a strong genetic background control of the content and composition of anthocyanins in grapes, therefore the anthocyanin profile is a suitable parameter for fingerprinting. Anyway, several studies showed how non-genetic factors such as environmental conditions and viticultural practices, can influence the distribution and the concentration of anthocyanins. A statistical analysis performed considering the influence of thinning and girdling alone or in combination on Sugrathirteen ® vines showed how the investigated factors significantly influence various physical-chemical parameters (sugars accumulation, organic acids, etc.) as well as single anthocyanins detected by HPLC. In particular the results show how the treatments were able not only to affect total polyphenols and anthocyanin concentration, but moreover it was possible an analysis of anthocyanins profile variation in relation to the agronomical treatments performed at different timing (berry set and veraison).

Effect of Cover Crops, and the Management Thereof, on the Weed Spectrum in a Drip-irrigated Vineyard: 1. Weeds Growing During Winter and From Grapevine Bud Break to Grapevine Berry Set

A five-year trial (2009 to 2013) was executed in a drip-irrigated full-bearing seven-year-old Shiraz/101-14 Mgt vineyard established on a sandy to sandy clay loam soil at Blaauwklippen Farm (33°58’S, 18°50’E) near Stellenbosch, South Africa. Fourteen treatments, consisting of two management practices applied to five cover crop species, as well as winter-growing weeds (no cover crop) and winter-growing weeds (no cover crop) with nematicide applied in the vine row, were applied. The effect of the five cover crop species, either controlled chemically (CC) or mechanically (MC) during grapevine bud break, on the weed spectrum was determined at the end of winter and during grapevine berry set. Total suppression of Lolium species (ryegrass) was achieved with Avena sativa cv. Pallinup (oats) (CC) and Eruca sativa cv. Nemat (Nemat) (CC) after three years. A grass-specific herbicide applied at the end of May 2012 terminated the dominance of ryegrass and facilitated the dominance of Erodium moschatum (musk heron’s bill). Sowing the cover crops as late as 2013-05-23 prevented ryegrass from regaining its dominance. After five winters, ryegrass was totally eradicated from oats (CC), oats (MC), Sinapus alba cv. Braco (white mustard) (CC) and Nemat (CC). Musk heron’s bill was totally suppressed in all treatments during berry set within two seasons and ryegrass in all the CC treatments by 2011. This probably facilitated the dominance of Digitaria sanguinalis (crab fingergrass).

Does Full Exposure of Clusters Have Any Negative Effects on Tempranillo (Vitis vinifera L.) Grape Quality in La Rioja, Spain? The Use of Severe Cluster-zone Leaf Removal after Berry Set

A three-year experiment comprising severe leaf removal (LR) was carried out on Tempranillo grapes in Logrono, North-central Spain. For the LR treatment, six basal leaves, along with the basal lateral shoots, were removed two weeks after fruit set. Berry total soluble solids (TSS) were examined when the colour began to appear. Grapes from both the LR and control (C) vines were analysed at the same TSS level (≈ 22°Brix). LR advanced the onset of anthocyanin synthesis slightly but significantly. Yield components were not affected by LR and no symptoms of sunburn were observed. Both treatments showed similar juice pH and titratable acidity, although tartaric acid increased with LR while malic acid decreased with it. In spite of failing to increase the final anthocyanin concentration of the grape juice, LR enhanced the colour and body of the wine. These results indicate that a relatively early LR could be a viable way to improve the quality of grapes and wine under the climatic conditions of the Rioja wine region.

Effect of Cover Crops, and the Management Thereof, on the Weed Spectrum in a Drip-irrigated Vineyard: 2. Weeds Growing From Grapevine Berry Set to Post-harvest

A five-year trial (2009 to 2013) was executed in a drip-irrigated seven-year-old Shiraz/101-14 Mgt vineyard established on a sandy to sandy clay loam soil at Blaauwklippen Farm (33°58’S, 18°50’E) near Stellenbosch, South Africa. Fourteen treatments, consisting of two management practices applied to five cover crop species, as well as winter-growing weeds (no cover crop) and winter-growing weeds (no cover crop) with nematicide applied in the vine row, were applied. The weeds and cover crop species were eithercontrolled chemically (CC) or mechanically (MC) during grapevine bud break, followed by full-surface chemical control during berry set (for both CC and MC treatments). Rhynchelytrum repens (Natal redtop)dominated the post-harvest pre-treatment weed spectrum in all the treatments except Eruca sativa cv. Nemat (Nemat) (MC). This species lost its post-harvest dominance from 2010 onwards. It seems that the relatively low summer rainfall during the 2010/2011 season allowed Anagallis arvensis to appear in April 2011 and dominate some of the treatments, which coincided with the disappearance of Cynodon dactylon (common couch) and Polygonum aviculare (prostrate knotweed). Digitaria sanguinalis, common couch and prostrate knotweed seemed to establish better during late summer where MC was applied. The pre-treatment average post-harvest weed stand of 5.53 t/ha was reduced to 0.53 t/ha within one season, illustrating the benefit of full-surface chemical weed control applied during grapevine berry set.

Ensemble-Based Segmentation in the Perception of Multiple Feature Conjunctions

Although objects around us vary in a number of continuous dimensions (color, size, orientation, etc.), we tend to perceive the objects using more discrete, categorical descriptions. For example, in the variety of colors and shapes on a bush, we can see a set of berries and a set of leaves. Previously, we described how the visual system transforms the continuous statistics of simple features into categorical classes using the shape of distribution. In brief, “sharp” distributions with extreme values and a big gap between them are perceived as “segmentable” and as consisting of categorically different objects, while “smooth” distributions with both extreme and moderate features are perceived as “non-segmentable” and consisting of categorically identical objects. Here, we tested this mechanism of segmentation for more complex conjunctions of features. Using a texture discrimination task with texture difference defined as length-orientation correlation, we manipulated the segmentability of length and orientation. We found that observers are better at discriminating between the textures when both dimensions are segmentable. We assume that the segmentability of both dimensions leads to rapid (within 100-200 ms, as our data show) segmentation of conjunction classes which facilitates the comparison between the textures containing these classes.

Pre-flowering defoliation affects berry structure and enhances wine sensory parameters

<p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Aim:</strong> The objective of this work is to investigate the effects of defoliation on cv. Pinot noir under the mild-climate conditions of Switzerland, with particular attention to berry anatomical traits and wine sensory parameters.<strong></strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Methods and results:</strong> Defoliation (removal of 6 basal leaves + 6 lateral shoots per shoot) was completed at three developmental stages of grapevine, i.e., pre-flowering, late flowering and bunch closure. These experimentations were performed repeatedly over six years. In addition to the vintage effect, pre-flowering defoliation had a consistent impact on vine agronomic behaviour. The yield was highly affected by the technique (-30 %). The berry skin thickness doubled, and the polyphenol concentration increased significantly. The free glutathione concentration in the must decreased.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Conclusion:</strong> Leaf removal at early pre-flowering stage had tremendous consequences on the vine agronomic performance, mainly to the detriment of berry set, thus having a great impact on yield, berry skin thickness, must composition, and wine composition.<strong></strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Significance and impact of the study:</strong> Hypothesis about the competition for assimilates between the growing canopy and the inflorescences during the early season was developed. Furthermore, the role of glutathione and anthocyanins – as antioxidants against UV stress – was interpreted, demonstrating that grapevine is able to adapt to abiotic stresses and ensure a sustainable development.</p>

EFFECT OF SPRAYING EXTRACTS OF ROCKET AND FENUGREEK SEED SPROUTS ON YIELD AND QUALITY OF FLAME SEEDLESS GRAPEVINES

This study was carried out during 2015 and 2016 seasons at Samalout district, Minia Governorate to study the effect of spraying extracts of rocket and fenugreek seed sprouts each at 0.5 to 2% on growth aspects, vine nutritional status, berry setting (%), yield, berries colouration (%) and berries quality of Flame seedless grapevines. Treating the vines three times with rocket or fenugreek seed sprouts extracts each at 0.5 to 2% resulted in an obvious promotion on all growth aspects, leaf pigments and nutrients, berry setting (%), yield, berries colouration (%) and berries quality relative to the control treatment. The promotion was related to the increase in the concentration of rocket and fenugreek seed sprouts extracts. The investigated parameters were unaffected with increasing concentration from 1.0 to 2.0 (%) from each material. Fenugreek seed sprouts was superior than using rocket seed sprout in this respect. Carrying out four sprays of extract of fenugreek seed sprouts at 1.0% was responsible for improving yield and berries quality of Flame seedless grapevines.

Changes in Tannin Composition of Syrah Grape Skins and Seeds during Fruit Ripening under Contrasting Water Conditions.

Tannin accumulation and composition were determined in skins and seeds isolated from Vitis vinifera cv. Syrah grapes submitted to contrasting water regimes under semiarid climatic conditions. Three irrigation treatments were conducted, starting at berry set through harvest of two growing seasons, 2011 and 2012: irrigation at 100% of crop evapotranspiration ETc (FI), irrigation at 50% of ETc (DI) and non-irrigated (NI). Seed total tannins did not vary with maturity but those of skins underwent a progressive decline (especially in 2011), expressed both on a fresh weight and on a per berry basis. Skin total tannin concentration and content per berry were increased under NI and DI conditions, mainly in 2012. In contrast, seed total tannins (in 2012) and flavan-3-ol monomers and tannin oligomers (both years) were higher in the fully irrigated vines (FI). Skin polymer size increased during ripening, NI and DI skins showing higher mean degree of polymerization (mDP) compared to FI at harvest. NI was also associated with a lower percentage of galloylation (%G) in skin oligomeric fraction (in 2012) and a lower percentage of prodelphinidins in the skin polymeric fraction (both years) at harvest. The mDP and %G of seed extracts did not vary during ripening and were higher in NI but only in 2012. According to the results, management of vine water status was shown to influence tannin amount and composition of Syrah grapes grown under semiarid conditions.

RNA-seq based transcriptomic analysis of CPPU treated grape berries and emission of volatile compounds

Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) is considered to be one of the most popular and widespread fruit crops in the world. Numerous value added products are prepared from grape fruit and investments are being made to establish new viticulture region (Hoff et al., 2017; Imran et al., 2017). CPPU [forchlorfenuron N-(2-chloro-4-pyridyl)-N-phenylurea] is a synthetic cytokine-like plant regulator which promotes grape berry set and development. The influence of CPPU [forchlorfenuron N-(2-chloro-4-pyridyl)-N-phenylurea] on berry development of ‘Shine Muscat’ (Vitis labruscana Bailey×V vinifera L.) grapes was evaluated under field conditions. A concentration response was observed over a range of 0, 5, and 10 mgL−1 CPPU that was applied to fruitlets (mean diameter 6mm) at 2 weeks after full bloom. Gas-chromatography mass-spectrometry (GC–MS) revealed that volatile compounds such as terpenoids and aromatics; especially linalool, geraniol and benzyl alcohols, were greatly reduced in CPPU-treated grapes. In contrast, aliphatics, such as hexanol, were increased in CPPU-treated berries. RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) was conducted to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs) that were induced by CPPU, especially those related to volatile biosynthesis. A total of 494, 1237, and 1085 DEGs were detected in CPPU0-vs-CPPU5, CPPU0-vs-CPPU10, and CPPU5-vs-CPPU10 treatments, respectively. The results were compared against two databases (Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG)) to annotate gene descriptions and assign a pathway to each gene. GO covers three domains: biological processes, molecular functions and cellular components. Pathway enrichment annotation demonstrated that highly ranked genes were associated with the fatty acid degradation and biosynthesis, phenylpropanoid metabolism and biosynthesis, carotenoid biosynthesis, and plant hormone signal transduction. Analysis with qRT-PCR of twelve selected transcripts validated the data obtained by RNA-seq. Additionally, we also found that genes such as CCDs (carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase), LOX (lipoxygenase), GGDP reductase (geranylgeranyl diphosphate reductase), PAL (phenylalanine ammonia-lyase) and some hormones related genes, were closely involved in the formation of volatiles compounds in CPPU treated berries. In summary, our results provide the first sequential transcriptomic atlas of CPPU treated grape berries which significantly increases our understanding of volatile metabolites and biosynthesis pathways in grape affected by CPPU.

RESPONSE OF “SUPERIOR” GRAPEVINES TO SPRAYING OF TWO AMINO ACID SOURCES

This study was undertaken during 2015 and 2016 seasons to throwsome lights on the effect of two amino acid sources namely “Vegetamine”(24.8% free amino acids + 5.5 % N) and Amino green (15% amino acids +2.9% Fe, 1.4% Zn and 0.7% Mn) each at 0.05 to 0.4% on some growthaspects, vine nutritional status, berry setting %, yield and berries quality of“Superior” grapevines.Treating the vines three times with “Vegetamine” each at 0.05 to0.4% caused an appreciable promotion on some growth aspects, leafpigments and nutrients, berry setting %, yield and berries quality over thecheck treatment. A gradual promotion on the investigated parameters wasobserved with increasing concentrations of each source of amino acids. Allthe studied characteristics were unaffected with increasing concentrationsfrom 0.2 to 0.4%. Using Amino green source was materially superior thanusing the other source of amino acids namely “Vegetamine” in improvinggrowth, vine nutritional status, yield and berries quality.Accordingly, treating “Superior” grapevines three times with aminoacids in the source of Amino green at 0.2% gave the best results withregard to yield and berries quality.

BEHAVIOUR OF SUPERIOR GRAPEVINES TO APPLICATION OF SOME REST BREAKING AGENTS AND WINTER PRUNING I- THE EFFECT OF SOME BREAKING AGENTS

This study was carried out during 2011/2012 and 2012/2013seasons to throw some lights on the effect of nine chemical and naturalrest breaking agents. (Dormex at 4%, brotacion at 4%, garlic oil at 5%,sodium azide at 1%, thiourea at 2%, oils of flax seed, clove and onioneach at 5% and H2O2 at 5%) on breaking dormancy and improvingproductivity of Superior grapevines.Using any one of the nine chemical and natural rest breakingagents was very effective in advancing the start and end of bud burst,shortening duration of bud burst and blooming periods and improving thepercentages of bud burst and fruiting buds, all growth aspects, leafpigments and nutrients, berry setting%, yield and quality of the berriesrelative to the check treatment. The best chemical and natural restbreaking agents were dormex at 4%, brotacion at 4% and garlic oil at 5%,respectively.Subjecting the vines to dormex or brotacion each at 4% gave thebest results with regard to breaking dormancy and promoting theproductivity of Superior grapevines. Under organic farming system, it issuggested to use garlic oil at 5%.

The Effect of Fertilisation on the Performance of Barlinka Table Grapes on Sandy Soil, Hex River Valley

The response of Barlinka table grapes on grayish, sandy soil to irrigation-applied N fertilisation levels, patterns of N application, crop load and stock P and K fertilisation, were evaluated over a 12-year period in the Hex River Valley. Under the conditions of the trial, an N level of about 100 kg ha-1 appeared to be optimum for shoot growth and grape quality. Bunch and crop mass benefited from increased N levels, apparently due to better berry set. Increased N levels also appeared to preserve greenness of bunch stems better during cold storage but N levels higher than 105-120 kg ha-' reduced colour and sugar content of berries. Applying 67% of total seasonal N during the pre-bloom to veraison period and the rest after harvest, as against a 50:50 distribution, had a slight, positive effect on shoot growth and bunch size, again apparently caused by better berry set. Indications of a small, positive response of shoot growth to stock P fertilisation were obtained. Potassium applied in this manner was found to be ineffective due to leaching and regular irrigation-applied K fertilisation had to be adopted. Increased crop load had a marked negative effect on shoot growth and grape quality, in the latter case comparable in magnitude to that of too high N levels. A balanced crop load of 22 bunches per vine with a shoot mass of 1,822 kg, was calculated for this trial, but a crop load of 18-19 bunches per vine appeared to be the maximum that still ensured the best quality.

Distribution of 14C-Photosynthetate in the Shoot of Vitis vinifera L. cv Cabernet Sauvignon I. The Effect of Leaf Position and Developmental Stage of the Vine

The distribution of photosynthetates, originating in leaves of different parts of the shoot of Vi tis vinifera L. cv Cabernet Sauvignon at berry set, pea size, veraison and ripeness stages, was investigated. Specific photosynthetic activity of the CO,-treated leaves gradually decreased during the season. Photosynthetates were hoarded in the leaves at berry set, but were increasingly diverted to the bunches after that. The apical leaves displayed the Itlghes.t.photosynthesis. The leaves opposite and below the bunches accumulated very little photosynthetafes, especially from veraison to ripeness. Redistribution of photosynthetates among the basal, middle and apical leaves was generally very restricted at all stages. Multidirectional distribution from the site of application of 14CO, occurred at berry set stage, while from pea size to ripeness photosynthetates were mainly translocated basipetally. Highest accumulation in the bunches occurred at veraison, while the basal leaves were primarily used to nourish the bunch.

The Effect of Partial Defoliation, Leaf Position and Developmental Stage of the Vine on Leaf Chlorophyll Concentration in Relation to the Photosynthetic Activity and Light Intensity in the Canopy of Vitis vinif era L. cv. Cabernet Sauvignon

The effect of partial defoliation and leaf position on leaf chlorophyll concentration in relation to the photosynthetic activity and light intensity in the canopy of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Cabernet Sauvignon was investigated at berry set, pea size, veraison and ripeness stages. The leaves of the severely defoliated vines appeared to contain the highest chlorophyll concentration. In general, chlorophyll a decreased as the leaves were situated progressively deeper into the canopy. No consistent relationship between chlorophyll concentration, light intensity and photosynthetic activity could be found for the different leaf positions. However, to obtain leaves that photosynthesize optimally, the amount and time of leaf removal in the grapevine canopy must be carefully planned.

Distribution of 14C-Photosynthetate in the Shoot of Vitis vinifera L. cv Cabernet Sauvignon II. The Effect of Partial Defoliation

The effect of partial defoliation of Vitis vinifera L. cv Cabernet Sauvignon on the distribution of photosynthetates, originating in leaves in different positions on the shoot at berry set, pea size, veraison and ripeness stages, was investigated. Partial defoliation (33% and 66%) resulted in a higher apparent photosynthetic effectivity for all the remaining leaves on the shoot. The pattern of distribution of photosynthetates would seem to stay the same between the defoliation treatments. The control vines were found to carry excess foliage. Optimal photosynthetic activity of all the leaves on the vine was therefore not reached.

The Effect of Partial Defoliation on Growth Characteristics of Vitis vinif era L. cv. Cabernet Sauvignon IL Reproductive Growth

The effect of partial defoliation over the whole canopy on the reproductive growth of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Cabernet Sauvignon was investigated. The 33% defoliation treatment prior to pea size and the 66% defoliation treatment prior to veraison adversely affected fresh mass per berry and yield at harvest. The 33% defoliation treatment from veraison increased fresh berry mass. Partial defoliation had no effect on berry water content. Dry matter started to accumulate rapidly only from after pea size stage. The fresh berry mass:cane mass ratio increased with partial defoliation from veraison. Leaf area/g fresh mass results indicated that control vines carried excess foliage which prevented maximum photosynthetic activity. Partial defoliation of the canopy improved budding percentage, generally increasing with increasing defoliation, whereas bud fertility was improved only by 33% defoliation. In general, leaf removal from bud break and berry set was more effective in improving budding, whereas bud fertility was favoured by partial defoliation from bud break.

The Effect of Partial Defoliation on Growth Characteristics of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Cabernet Sauvignon I. Vegetative Growth

The effect of partial defoliation over the whole canopy on the reproductive growth of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Cabernet Sauvignon was investigated. The 33% defoliation treatment prior to pea size and the 66% defoliation treatment prior to veraison adversely affected fresh mass per berry and yield at harvest. The 33% defoliation treatment from veraison increased fresh berry mass. Partial defoliation had no effect on berry water content. Dry matter started to accumulate rapidly only from after pea size stage. The fresh berry mass:cane mass ratio increased with partial defoliation from veraison. Leaf area/g fresh mass results indicated that control vines carried excess foliage which prevented maximum photosynthetic activity. Partial defoliation of the canopy improved budding percentage, generally increasing with increasing defoliation, whereas bud fertility was improved only by 33% defoliation. In general, leaf removal from bud break and berry set was more effective in improving budding, whereas bud fertility was favoured by partial defoliation from bud break.

Plant Spacing Implications for Grafted Grapevine II Soil Water, Plant Water Relations, Canopy Physiology, Vegetative and Reproductive Characteristics, Grape Composition, Wine Quality and Labour Requirements

Vitis vinifera L. cv. Pinot noir vines grafted onto rootstock 99 Richter and grown under six plant spacings (3 x 3 m; 3 x 1,5 m; 2 x 2 m; 2 x 1 m; 1 x 1 m; 1 x 0,5 m) were investigated in terms of canopy dimension and microclimate, soil conditions, canopy physiology, vegetative and reproductive growth characteristics, grape composition, wine quality and labour input. Vines were pruned to six buds/m2 soil surface and supplementary irrigated just after pea berry size and veraison stages. The number of leaf layers, light intensity and air flow generally decreased with closer spacing, whereas relative humidity increased. In contrast to the virtually stable, albeit lower, soil water content of closer-spaced vines, that of wider spacings noticeably decreased from veraison to ripeness. This may be ascribed to the almost continuous seasonal shading of the soil in the case of the narrower spacings, and the generally higher soil temperatures found for the wider spacings. Leaf and bunch water potentials of both wider- and closer-spaced vines decreased during the ripening period. Bunches were more sensitive to water stress. Leaf and bunch water potential coincided with soil water content. The lower photosynthetic activity of closely spaced vines was accompanied by increased transpirational water loss and is mainly ascribed to less favourable canopy microclimate. Despite the supplementary irrigation and slight differences in leaf water potential between spacings, wider-spaced vines apparently grew under less water stress during the ripening period. This was also evident from leaf xylem sap abscisic acid levels at ripeness. Shoot, leaf and berry growth rates apparently increased with narrower spacing, whereas total leaf area per vine decreased. Fresh berry mass of narrow-spaced vines was, however, slightly lower at ripeness. Budding of narrow spacings increased, whereas fertility and bunch mass were reduced, resulting in decreased yield per vine. Optimum berry set and yield per hectare occurred for medium-spaced vines (2 x 2 m, 2 x 1 m); this was also evident on a m2 soil surface basis. Leaf area per fresh mass of widely spaced vines ( 3 x 3 m, 3 x 1,5 m) was much lower than the generally required 10 - 12 cm2 and points to overcropping. Musts of widely spaced vines had less soluble solids and titratable acidity, whereas must pH increased progressively from widely to closely spaced vines. It would seem that widely spaced vines were overcropped due to low cultivar vigour and/or low yielding capacity of the soil, eventually affecting ripening. Grapes from medium-spaced vines had higher anthocyanin levels in the skin. Sensorially, wines made from closer spacings (2 x 2 m, 2 x 1 m, 1 x 1 m, 1 x 0,5 m) scored distincly higher than those from widely spaced vines. Although yield per hectare was higher, closely spaced vines (1 x 1 m, 1 x 0,5 m) needed significantly higher inputs for canopy management, harvesting and pruning. Considering land utilisation, vine performance, wine quality as well as labour input, medium-spaced vines (2 x 2 m; 2 x 1 m) performed optimally.