Stages Of Berry Development Research Articles

Transcriptome and metabolite profiling reveals that prolonged drought modulates the phenylpropanoid and terpenoid pathway in white grapes (Vitis vinifera L.).

BackgroundSecondary metabolism contributes to the adaptation of a plant to its environment. In wine grapes, fruit secondary metabolism largely determines wine quality. Climate change is predicted to exacerbate drought events in several viticultural areas, potentially affecting the wine quality. In red grapes, water deficit modulates flavonoid accumulation, leading to major quantitative and compositional changes in the profile of the anthocyanin pigments; in white grapes, the effect of water deficit on secondary metabolism is still largely unknown.ResultsIn this study we investigated the impact of water deficit on the secondary metabolism of white grapes using a large scale metabolite and transcript profiling approach in a season characterized by prolonged drought. Irrigated grapevines were compared to non-irrigated grapevines that suffered from water deficit from early stages of berry development to harvest. A large effect of water deficit on fruit secondary metabolism was observed. Increased concentrations of phenylpropanoids, monoterpenes, and tocopherols were detected, while carotenoid and flavonoid accumulations were differentially modulated by water deficit according to the berry developmental stage. The RNA-sequencing analysis carried out on berries collected at three developmental stages—before, at the onset, and at late ripening—indicated that water deficit affected the expression of 4,889 genes. The Gene Ontology category secondary metabolic process was overrepresented within up-regulated genes at all the stages of fruit development considered, and within down-regulated genes before ripening. Eighteen phenylpropanoid, 16 flavonoid, 9 carotenoid, and 16 terpenoid structural genes were modulated by water deficit, indicating the transcriptional regulation of these metabolic pathways in fruit exposed to water deficit. An integrated network and promoter analyses identified a transcriptional regulatory module that encompasses terpenoid genes, transcription factors, and enriched drought-responsive elements in the promoter regions of those genes as part of the grapes response to drought.ConclusionOur study reveals that grapevine berries respond to drought by modulating several secondary metabolic pathways, and particularly, by stimulating the production of phenylpropanoids, the carotenoid zeaxanthin, and of volatile organic compounds such as monoterpenes, with potential effects on grape and wine antioxidant potential, composition, and sensory features.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12870-016-0760-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Impacts of Grapevine Leafroll Disease on Fruit Yield and Grape and Wine Chemistry in a Wine Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) Cultivar.

Grapevine leafroll disease (GLD) is an economically important virus disease affecting wine grapes (Vitis vinifera L.), but little is known about its effect on wine chemistry and sensory composition of wines. In this study, impacts of GLD on fruit yield, berry quality and wine chemistry and sensory features were investigated in a red wine grape cultivar planted in a commercial vineyard. Own-rooted Merlot vines showing GLD symptoms and tested positive for Grapevine leafroll-associated virus 3 and adjacent non-symptomatic vines that tested negative for the virus were compared during three consecutive seasons. Number and total weight of clusters per vine were significantly less in symptomatic relative to non-symptomatic vines. In contrast to previous studies, a time-course analysis of juice from grapes harvested at different stages of berry development from symptomatic and non-symptomatic vines indicated more prominent negative impacts of GLD on total soluble solids (TSS) and berry skin anthocyanins than in juice pH and titratable acidity. Differences in TSS between grapes of symptomatic and non-symptomatic vines were more pronounced after the onset of véraison, with significantly lower concentrations of TSS in grapes from symptomatic vines throughout berry ripening until harvest. Wines made from grapes of GLD-affected vines had significantly lower alcohol, polymeric pigments, and anthocyanins compared to corresponding wines from grapes of non-symptomatic vines. Sensory descriptive analysis of 2010 wines indicated significant differences in color, aroma and astringency between wines made from grapes harvested from GLD-affected and unaffected vines. The impacts of GLD on yield and fruit and wine quality traits were variable between the seasons, with greater impacts observed during a cooler season, suggesting the influence of host plant × environment interactions on overall impacts of the disease.

Terpene evolution during the development of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Shiraz grapes

The flavour of wine is derived, in part, from the flavour compounds present in the grape, which change as the grapes accumulate sugar and ripen. Grape berry terpene concentrations may vary at different stages of berry development. This study aimed to investigate terpene evolution in grape berries from four weeks post-flowering to maturity. Grape bunches were sampled at fortnightly intervals over two vintages (2012–13 and 2013–14). In total, five monoterpenoids, 24 sesquiterpenes, and four norisoprenoids were detected in grape samples. The highest concentrations of total monoterpenoids, total sesquiterpenes, and total norisoprenoids in grapes were all observed at pre-veraison. Terpenes derived from the same biosynthetic pathway had a similar production pattern during berry development. Terpenes in grapes at harvest might not necessarily be synthesised at post-veraison, since the compounds or their precursors may already exist in grapes at pre-veraison, with the veraison to harvest period functioning to convert these precursors into final products.

Impact of leaf removal after berry set on fruit composition and bunch rot in 'Sauvignon blanc'

Leaf removal is a viticultural practice applied to improve cluster microclimate and grape composition. This practice can reduce the incidence of bunch rot but could also promote the degradation of berry methoxypyrazines, key components for the aromatic profile of 'Sauvignon blanc' wines. The influence of cluster-zone leaf removal, applied after berry set, was evaluated on 'Sauvignon blanc' grapevines grown in the Isonzo DOC region (Italy). In 2010 and 2011, yield components and fruit chemical composition were recorded from vines in which the five basal leaves of each single shoot were manually removed at the groat-sized phenological stage, and compared to untreated vines. Our results indicated that leaf removal did not influence yield or fruit composition at harvest, but significantly decreased the incidence and severity of Botrytis bunch rot, while reducing the severity of sunburn damage to the fruit. Increased sunlight cluster exposure decreased 2-methoxy-3-isobutylpyrazine (IBMP) and 3-isopropyl-2-methoxypyrazine (IPMP) concentrations in early stages of berry development, whereas at harvest no significant differences between treatments (defoliated and non-defoliated) were observed. We conclude that leaf removal performed after berry set is a pivotal viticultural management practice to cope with harvest bunch rot complex without negatively affecting fruit composition at harvest.

Effect of vine nitrogen status, grapevine variety and rootstock on the levels of berry S-glutathionylated and S-cysteinylated precursors of 3-sulfanylhexan-1-ol

<p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Aim</strong>: To determine the effect of vine nitrogen status in interaction with grapevine variety and rootstock on vine development and on the synthesis of 3-sulfanylhexan-1-ol precursors (Glut-3SH and Cys-3SH) in grape berries produced in controlled conditions.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Methods and results</strong>: Potted Sauvignon blanc (SB) and Cabernet-Sauvignon (CS) vines, grafted on two different rootstocks (110R and RGM), were irrigated with two nutritive solutions varying only by their nitrogen content (N(-) and N(+)). Vine nitrogen status of N(-) treatment was significantly different from that of N(+) treatment. Secondary leaf area was higher in N(+) treatment and ripening was delayed because of increased vigor. High N status increased Glut-3SH content in berries, while it did not impact Cys-3SH level. Moreover, the concentrations of 3SH precursors were higher in SB berries compared to CS and their synthesis was enhanced in berries produced by vines grafted onto RGM under N(+) treatment.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Conclusion</strong>: Glut-3SH content was mainly determined by plant N status. Grapevine variety and rootstock/N treatment interaction also had a significant, although more limited, impact. Cys-3SH level was dependent on berry developmental stage and grapevine variety, but not on vine N status.</p><strong>Significance and impact of the study</strong>: A better understanding of the effect of terroir components on the biosynthesis of the precursors of volatile thiols is gained.

Metabolic and molecular analyses of white mutant Vaccinium berries show down-regulation of MYBPA1-type R2R3 MYB regulatory factor.

MYBPA1-type R2R3 MYB transcription factor shows down-regulation in white mutant berries of Vaccinium uliginosum deficient in anthocyanins but not proanthocyanidins suggesting a role in the regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis. Berries of the genus Vaccinium are among the best natural sources of flavonoids. In this study, the expression of structural and regulatory flavonoid biosynthetic genes and the accumulation of flavonoids in white mutant and blue-colored wild-type bog bilberry (V. uliginosum) fruits were measured at different stages of berry development. In contrast to high contents of anthocyanins in ripe blue-colored berries, only traces were detected by HPLC-ESI-MS in ripe white mutant berries. However, similar profile and high levels of flavonol glycosides and proanthocyanidins were quantified in both ripe white and ripe wild-type berries. Analysis with qRT-PCR showed strong down-regulation of structural genes chalcone synthase (VuCHS), dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (VuDFR) and anthocyanidin synthase (VuANS) as well as MYBPA1-type transcription factor VuMYBPA1 in white berries during ripening compared to wild-type berries. The profiles of transcript accumulation of chalcone isomerase (VuCHI), anthocyanidin reductase (VuANR), leucoanthocyanidin reductase (VuLAR) and flavonoid 3'5' hydroxylase (VuF3'5'H) were more similar between the white and the wild-type berries during fruit development, while expression of UDP-glucose: flavonoid 3-O-glucosyltransferase (VuUFGT) showed similar trend but fourfold lower level in white mutant. VuMYBPA1, the R2R3 MYB family member, is a homologue of VmMYB2 of V. myrtillus and VcMYBPA1 of V. corymbosum and belongs to MYBPA1-type MYB family which members are shown in some species to be related with proanthocyanidin biosynthesis in fruits. Our results combined with earlier data of the role of VmMYB2 in white mutant berries of V. myrtillus suggest that the regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis in Vaccinium species could differ from other species studied.

Expression of stable reference genes and SPINDLY gene in response to gibberellic acid application at different stages of grapevine development

Gibberellic acid (GA3) is widely used at different stages of berry development, and to understand the molecular mechanism of its action requires identification of stable reference genes. We sprayed grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) cv. Thompson Seedless with GA3 at rachis stage for rachis elongation, at flower cluster stage for flower thinning, and at 3-4 mm berry stage for berry elongation. Tissue samples were collected at different time points after GA3 application. The expression of 10 candidate reference genes was analyzed using 4 different algorithms to assess their suitability for real time-PCR data normalization. Based on the overall ranking, PP2A, Sutra, and SAND were identified as the most stably expressed genes across all samples. With regard to different stages, tubulin, EF1α, and UBC were the most stable genes during rachis elongation; PP2A, SAND, and Sutra were the most suitable at the flower cluster and berry stages. The expression of GA signaling gene SPINDLY (VvSpy) was analyzed to validate the stable reference genes. After the GA3 application, the expression of VvSpy was reduced at the rachis stage but did not change at the flower cluster and berry stages. The expression profile of VvSpy was comparable when two or three reference genes were used for data normalization.

Water limitation and rootstock genotype interact to alter grape berry metabolism through transcriptome reprogramming.

Grapevine is a perennial crop often cultivated by grafting a scion cultivar on a suitable rootstock. Rootstocks influence scions, particularly with regard to water uptake and vigor. Therefore, one of the possibilities to adapt viticulture to the extended drought stress periods is to select rootstocks conferring increased tolerance to drought. However, the molecular mechanisms associated with the ability of rootstock/scion combination to influence grape berry metabolism under drought stress are still poorly understood. The transcriptomic changes induced by drought stress in grape berries (cv. Pinot noir) from vines grafted on either 110R (drought-tolerant) or 125AA (drought-sensitive) rootstock were compared. The experiments were conducted in the vineyard for two years and two grape berry developmental stages (50% and 100% veraison). The genome-wide microarray approach showed that water stress strongly impacts gene expression in the berries, through ontology categories that cover cell wall metabolism, primary and secondary metabolism, signaling, stress, and hormones, and that some of these effects strongly depend on the rootstock genotype. Indeed, under drought stress, berries from vines grafted on 110R displayed a different transcriptional response compared to 125AA-concerning genes related to jasmonate (JA), phenylpropanoid metabolism, and pathogenesis-related proteins. The data also suggest a link between JA and secondary metabolism in water-stressed berries. Overall, genes related to secondary metabolism and JA are more induced and/or less repressed by drought stress in the berries grafted on the drought-sensitive rootstock 125AA. These rootstock-dependent gene expression changes are relevant for berry composition and sensory properties.

Analysis of the transcript levels of VvAdh1, VvAdh2 and VvGrip4, three genes highly expressed during Vitis vinifera L. berry development

Well defined promoter sequences are required for the targeted expression of genes in transgenic grapevines. This paper describes a detailed study of the expression of three genes with potentially useful promoters. We have used real-time RT-PCR to evaluate the transcript levels of VvAdh1, VvAdh2 and VvGrip4 genes in various tissues (root, bud, tendril, inflorescence, fruit and embryogenic callus) of Vitis vinifera L. at different stages of development. Transcript levels of the three genes were highest in berry tissues but each had a distinct pattern of expression. VvAdh1 showed higher transcript levels during the early stages of berry development, while levels of VvAdh2 and VvGrip4 were higher during ripening. However, none of these genes was expressed in a strictly fruit-specific manner. In particular, significant levels of VvAdh1 and VvGrip4 transcripts were observed during late tendril development and in the inflorescence, respectively. Transcript levels of all three genes were similar in both flesh and skin, indicating no tissue-specificity within the berry. Promoter sequences of the VvAdh1, VvAdh2 and VvGrip4 genes could be very useful to drive ectopic gene expression in berries of transgenic plants.

AN EXPRESSION ANALYSIS OF AUXIN-RELATED GENES DURING INFLORESCENCE AND EARLY STAGES OF BERRY DEVELOPMENT IN GRAPEVINE

Auxin plays an important role in plant growth development, but the influence of auxin during inflorescence and early stages of berry development in grapevine has barely been investigated. The expression patterns of six VvYUC genes (related to auxin synthesis), VvTIR1-like (auxin receptor), VvPIN3-like (auxin efflux regulator), VvIAA9 and VvIAA19 (belongs to early auxin-responsive Aux/IAA gene family) were analysed in different organs. The results showed that the expression level of six VvYUC genes were lower than other auxin-related genes. Six VvYUC genes were expressed differentially in specific tissues. An exception was VvYUC10-like, transcripts of which were not found in any organ. By contrast, VvTIR1-like, VvPIN3-like, VvIAA9 and VvIAA19 were expressed in all organs (young leaf, mature leaf, tendril and stem) except VvIAA19 was not expressed in tendrils. This suggests that auxin-related genes were required for development of different organs. Transcripts of VvYUC genes were mainly detected before anthesis, only VvYUC6-like was expressed 6 days after anthesis. In addition, VvYUC10-like transcripts were not found before or after anthesis. Six VvYUC genes may be needed for grapevine inflorescence development, with the exception of VvYUC10-like, but do not affect fruit set. The expression of VvTIR1-like, VvPIN3-like, VvIAA9 and VvIAA19 were abundantly detected before and after anthesis, especially in the early stage of berry development. Our results show that these genes were related to the development of the inflorescence and to fruit set in the grapevine.

Changes of volatile compounds in vitis labrusca ‘Doonuri’ grapes during stages of fruit development and in wine

This study was investigated to elucidate the changes in volatile compounds of grapes of the ‘Doonuri’ that occurred during the ripening and that found in wine made from these grapes. Volatile compounds were extracted by simultaneous steam distillation and were subjected to gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Ten alcohols, 8 aldehydes, 14 esters, 7 ketones and lactones, and 3 other odor-active compounds were identified in grapes during ripening of berries and in wine. Alcohol compounds were detected at high concentrations than other compounds in wine. The concentrations of aldehydes were highest at initial stage of berry development, but was not detectable in wine. Ester, ketone, and lactone compounds were appeared primarily after veraison and were consistently increased till harvest period. Ester, ketone, and lactone compounds in wine had higher odor activity values than other compounds. The flavor of the ‘Doonuri’ grapes and wine was primarily developed from ester, ketone, and lactone compounds and unusual aroma like slightly dried peppery and tobacco leaf.

Promoting effect of foliage sprayed zinc sulfate on accumulation of sugar and phenolics in berries of Vitis vinifera cv. Merlot growing on zinc deficient soil.

The effect of foliage sprayed zinc sulfate on berry development of Vitis vinifera cv. Merlot growing on arid zone Zn-deficient soils was investigated over two consecutive seasons, 2013 and 2014. Initial zinc concentration in soil and vines, photosynthesis at three berry developmental stages, berry weight, content of total soluble solids, titratable acidity, phenolics and expression of phenolics biosynthetic pathway genes throughout the stages were measured. Foliage sprayed zinc sulfate showed promoting effects on photosynthesis and berry development of vines and the promotion mainly occurred from veraison to maturation. Zn treatments enhanced the accumulation of total soluble solids, total phenols, flavonoids, flavanols, tannins and anthocyanins in berry skin, decreasing the concentration of titratable acidity. Furthermore, foliage sprayed zinc sulfate could significantly influence the expression of phenolics biosynthetic pathway genes throughout berry development, and the results of expression analysis supported the promotion of Zn treatments on phenolics accumulation. This research is the first comprehensive and detailed study about the effect of foliage sprayed Zn fertilizer on grape berry development, phenolics accumulation and gene expression in berry skin, providing a basis for improving the quality of grape and wine in Zn-deficient areas.

A novel bud sport from the ‘Benitaka’ table grape cultivar (Vitis vinifera L.) improves sugar and anthocyanin accumulation at the berry ripening stage

Background‘Early-ripening Benitaka’ (Vitis vinifera), a bud sport of ‘Benitaka’ was found in 2008, which ripens earlier than its parental line. Differences in sugar and anthocyanin content and the relevant sucrose and anthocyanin metabolic enzymes for the two cultivars were investigated during fruit ripening. ResultThe mutation made berry size, reducing sugar of pulp and anthocyanin of pericarp increases during fruit ripening. In both ‘Benitaka’ and its mutant, the cell wall invertase activity was similar at the onset of ripening, but it showed markedly higher activity in the mutant at the late stage, which were correspondingly associated with the higher transcript level of cell wall invertase. For soluble invertase, the activity showed no difference between mutant and ‘Benitaka’ during the early stage of berry development, and dropped to the lowest level around the onset of ripening. Interestingly, the mutant had a greater reduction than its parental cultivars in the activity of soluble invertase. In addition, the expression level of the UDP-glucose: flavonoid 3-O-glucosyltransferase (UFGT) gene after veraison was higher in the berry pericarp of the mutant compared with that of the ‘Benitaka’, in agreement with the higher anthocyanin content of the former. ConclusionThe mutation in ‘early-ripening Benitaka’ affected sugar and anthocyanin metabolism, which might be related with accumulation of sugar and anthocyanin and other early-ripening phenotypes.

Use of diffusion magnetic resonance imaging to correlate the developmental changes in grape berry tissue structure with water diffusion patterns.

BackgroundOver the course of grape berry development, the tissues of the berry undergo numerous morphological transformations in response to processes such as water and solute accumulation and cell division, growth and senescence. These transformations are expected to produce changes to the diffusion of water through these tissues detectable using diffusion magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). To assess this non-invasive technique diffusion was examined over the course of grape berry development, and in plant tissues with contrasting oil content.ResultsIn this study, the fruit of Vitis vinfera L. cv. Semillon at seven different stages of berry development, from four weeks post-anthesis to over-ripe, were imaged using diffusion tensor and transverse relaxation MRI acquisition protocols. Variations in diffusive motion between these stages of development were then linked to known events in the morphological development of the grape berry. Within the inner mesocarp of the berry, preferential directions of diffusion became increasingly apparent as immature berries increased in size and then declined as berries progressed through the ripening and senescence phases. Transverse relaxation images showed radial striation patterns throughout the sub-tissue, initiating at the septum and vascular systems located at the centre of the berry, and terminating at the boundary between the inner and outer mesocarp. This study confirms that these radial patterns are due to bands of cells of alternating width that extend across the inner mesocarp. Preferential directions of diffusion were also noted in young grape seed nucelli prior to their dehydration. These observations point towards a strong association between patterns of diffusion within grape berries and the underlying tissue structures across berry development. A diffusion tensor image of a post-harvest olive demonstrated that the technique is applicable to tissues with high oil content.ConclusionThis study demonstrates that diffusion MRI is a powerful and information rich technique for probing the internal microstructure of plant tissues. It was shown that macroscopic diffusion anisotropy patterns correlate with the microstructure of the major pericarp tissues of cv. Semillon grape berries, and that changes in grape berry tissue structure during berry development can be observed.

Application of exogenous 24-epibrassinolide enhances proanthocyanidin biosynthesis in Vitis vinifera ‘Cabernet Sauvignon’ berry skin

‘Cabernet Sauvignon’ (Vitis vinifera L.) grape berries were treated with 0.4 mg/l 24-epibrassinolide applied once at fruit set (‘pea-sized berry’ phenological stage) (EBR-T1) or the same concentration EBR applied twice at fruit set and 14 days before veraison (EBR-T2). Berries sprayed with deionized water served as the control. The contents of proanthocyanidins (PAs) in the berry skin and seed, and the expression patterns of structural genes (VvLAR1, VvLAR2, VvANR, and VvANS) and transcription regulator genes (VvMYB5a, VvMYB5b, and VvMYBPA1) of PAs in the berry skin were measured. At berry maturity, total tannins in the skin of EBR-T1- and EBR-T2-treated berries were significant higher than those in control. Monomeric and oligomeric flavan-3-ols showed different levels of promotion by 24-epibrassinolide during berry development. The mRNA levels of the structural genes VvLAR1, VvLAR2, and VvANS and the transcription regulator gene VvMYBPA1 were affected significantly by 24-epibrassinolide treatment, but the effects varied at different stages of berry development. Most of the targets measured showed no significant difference between the EBR-T1 and EBR-T2 treatments. Thus, in general, application of 24-epibrassinolide enhanced PAs biosynthesis in the berry skin.

Ontogenic Resistance of Leaves and Fruit, and How Leaf Folding Influences the Distribution of Powdery Mildew on Strawberry Plants Colonized by Podosphaera aphanis

Ontogenic or age-related resistance has been noted in many pathosystems but is less often quantified or expressed in a manner that allows the concept to be applied in disease management programs. Preliminary studies indicated that leaves and fruit of three strawberry cultivars rapidly acquired ontogenic resistance to the powdery mildew pathogen, Podosphaera aphanis. In the present study, we quantify the development of ontogenic resistance in controlled inoculations of 10 strawberry cultivars using diverse isolates of P. aphanis in New York and Florida, USA, and in Norway. We report the differential and organ-specific development of ontogenic resistance in the receptacle and externally borne strawberry achenes. We further report that rapid development of ontogenic resistance prior to unfolding of emergent leaves, rather than differential susceptibility of adaxial versus abaxial leaf surfaces, may explain the commonly observed predominance of powdery mildew on the lower leaf surfaces. Susceptibility of leaves and fruit declined exponentially with age. Receptacle tissue of berries inoculated at four phenological stages from bloom to ripe fruit became nearly immune to infection approximately 10 to 15 days after bloom, as fruit transitioned from the early green to the late green or early white stage of berry development, although the achenes remained susceptible for a longer period. Leaves also acquired ontogenic resistance early in their development, and they were highly resistant shortly after unfolding and before the upper surface was fully exposed. No significant difference was found in the susceptibility of the adaxial versus abaxial surfaces. The rapid acquisition of ontogenic resistance by leaves and fruit revealed a narrow window of susceptibility to which management programs might be advantageously adapted.

Resveratrol synthesis under natural conditions and after UV-C irradiation in berry skin is associated with berry development stages in ‘Beihong’ (V. vinifera × V. amurensis)

Though UV-C irradiation may induce the synthesis of resveratrol in grape berry skins, it is unclear which developmental stage is most sensitive to UV-C induction. In this study, we investigated resveratrol content and gene expression of ‘Beihong’ (Vitisvinifera×Vitisamurensis) berries by UV-C irradiation compared with under natural conditions during different developmental stages. Under natural condition, resveratrol synthesis was related to veraison. Before veraison, resveratrol content was very low; however, total resveratrol increased about 500% from veraison to maturity in the main forms of piceids. UV-C irradiation significantly stimulated resveratrol synthesis, mainly in the form of trans-resveratrol. Young berries at 55days after anthesis were most sensitive to UV-C irradiation, the total resveratrol in the skin of UV-C irradiated berry is about 90 times higher than that of the control; however, resveratrol synthesis subsequently declined, which may be attributed to STS regulation by Myb14.

Sunlight exclusion from Muscat grape alters volatile profiles during berry development

The effects of sunlight exclusion on the volatile profiles of grapes during different stages of berry development were investigated by placing clusters of grapes in special boxes. Terpenes and aldehydes were the main volatile compounds in the ripe ‘Jingxiangyu’ berries. Sunlight exclusion was found to change volatile profiles at any stage. Sunlight exclusion from berries significantly inhibited the synthesis and accumulation of terpenes, which contribute to the characteristic aroma of Muscat grapes. However, sunlight exclusion during berry formation and veraison promoted the accumulation of aldehydes, alcohols, and ketones during the ripening stage. These results may provide important information regarding the metabolism of volatile compounds in grapes.

The Berries of Santalum album L. as a New Source of Cyanidin-3-Glucoside and Chemical Profiling during Different Stages of Berry Development

Changes during development of Santalum album L. berries were studied with respect to contents of pigment, carbohydrates, proteins, phenols, organic acids, colour and biomass. Cyanidin-3-glucoside (anthocyanin pigment) content increased rapidly from early (green) through intermediate (pink) to matured stage (black). Carbohydrates and proteins contents also increased during berry development. Phenols contents got reduced on maturation of the berries while total organic acids contents increased. Colour parameters such as L, b and chroma values decreased, whereas a value increased from green to pink stage, then decreased on ripening of the berries. Although berry size increased but seed weight did not change indicating biomass increase. From the present study, it is concluded that only the black (or matured) berries of S. album may be harvested for maximum yield of anthocyanin pigment.

English

The effects of root restriction on leaf and shoot growth and leaf anatomy of grape were investigated. Root restriction delayed leaf appearance, decreased leaf growth and reduced the rate of leaf expansion during all stage of berry development. Shoot growth of root-restricted vines was also reduced, with the length and thickness of shoots being lower than those of the control. Root restriction also induced adaptive changes in the leaf anatomy. Somata density of leaves from root-restricted vines was higher than that of controls, but the size of the stomata was smaller. The thickness of the leaf, cuticle, palisade layer, spongy mesophyll, and leaf structure tense ratio (CTR) were increased, however, the leaf tissue loose ratio (SR) and the size of guard cells were decreased. In conclusion, our results suggest that root restriction not only reduces growth of vegetative organ, but also alters their anatomy. These changes may be one of the reasons that change the physiological functions of the leaf.   Key words: Root restriction, shoot and leaf growth, leaf anatomy.