Bergson's Theory Research Articles

The role of the body in Bergson's theory of memory

Matière et Memóire é, nas palavras do grande mentor e fundador da Renascença Portuguesa, “um dos mais opulentos, ricos e penetrantes livros que produziu o pensamento filosófico” (COIMBRA, 1994, p. 89) - e é-o a vários níveis. Aqui trataremos de tentar trazer a lume uma das mais luminosas novidades que foram introduzidas por Bergson na história do pensamento humano, não somente na sua vertente puramente filosófica, mas também científica. Apurando a relação de natureza exosmótica entre a memória e o corpo, tentaremos demonstrar de que modo Bergson concebe a unidade melódica desses dois planos, evidenciando que a existência está, sempre, fundamentalmente virada para a acção.

Laughing Mechanism and Social Value of Chinese Black Comedy Films——From the Perspective of Bergson's Comedy Theory

This article aims to explore the mechanism of laughter and social functions of Chinese black comedy films from the perspective of Bergson's comedy theory. As a popular comedy subgenre in the Chinese film market, black comedy films combine dark and absurd tragic themes with comedy forms to form a unique film style. By using Bergson's comedy theory, while analyzing the comedy and the production mechanism of laughter in Chinese black comedy films, it also analyzes the social functions and cultural values of black comedy films, and explains how to use universal comedy techniques to empower them Black themes are accepted by the current Chinese society, providing some useful ideas and perspectives for further understanding of the creation and appreciation of Chinese black comedy films.

Rethinking Bergson's and Deleuze's Theories of Movement

Abstract Following Henri Bergson's third thesis of movement in Creative Evolution, Gilles Deleuze devotes a large section of Cinema I to applying the concept of the mobile section and the open whole to the narrative of analog cinema. By adopting a material ontological perspective and taking the disciplines of art-making into consideration, this article criticizes Deleuze's approach and proposes to rethink Bergson's and Deleuze's theories of movement in both analog cinema and digital moving images. In response to its main question, can analog and digital moving images constitute the open whole, this article examines the material degradation of film in the analog, investigates the phenomenon of morphing in the digital, and pays special attention to the real-time creation as well as the voyeuristic authorship of digital artworks.

Intertextuality and Tradition

Intertextuality and Tradition

Performing WIKI-PIANO.NET: Strategies for Realizing Alexander Schubert's Ever-Changing Internet-Composed Piano Work

Abstract This article explores strategies for interpreting Alexander Schubert's WIKI-PIANO.NET, a composition commissioned and performed by the author in an international tour in 2018 and 2020. Schubert's score is a website, all sections of which can be edited by the public, similar to a Wikipedia page. The author's strategies for interpreting the huge range of content added to the website-score draw upon Schubert's suggestions, the interdisciplinary rigor advocated by Jennifer Walshe, Henri Bergson's theories of comedy and the author's own experience as a composer-performer. These strategies are devised so that, despite the hundreds of compositional contributors, in performance, the final piece is perceived as an “Alexander Schubert work.”

Bergson's Theory of Free Will

Bergson argues that there is an incompatibility between free will and determinism: while free will has a dimension of creation, of invention, determinism corresponds to the idea that the future is fixed in advance by laws. In addition, he rejects determinism. According to him, the singularity of our deep-seated psychic states makes that their evolution cannot be governed by laws. However, Bergson does not defend classical indeterminism (of which contemporary indeterminism is only an extension) because it reduces free will to a choice between alternative possibilities, that is to say between pre-fixed futures. Such a conception does not take into account the creative dimension of free will. In fact, Bergson develops an original form of indeterminism based on a certain conception of causation. For determinism and classical indeterminism, causation is always the actualization of a pre-fixed virtual reality (single or multiple). For Bergson, causation can also be a creation, that is, the formation of something which is not pre-fixed.

Метакоммуникация в пьесах Н. Ф. Симпсона, Д. Кэмптона и Дж. Сондерса

This paper deals with the problem of metacommunication in dramatic discourse. Following the approaches of Slawomir Świontek, Patrice Pavis, Hans-Thies Lehmann and others, it discusses the ways of compensating the lack of a single mediating figure in drama. This analysis employs the concept of “semiotic profanation of a symbol” developed by Yuri Shatin. The investigation is based on several English plays that embody the poetics of theatrical absurd. Norman Frederic (“N. F.”) Simpson’s plays A Resounding Tinkle (1957) and The Hole (1958) both make extensive use of such characters as authors, critics, actors, visionaries. Characters are familiar with established interpretative models (Bergson's theory or modernist visionary poetics), even applying those models to their own actions. David Campton’s play Us and Them (1972) and James Saunders’ play Over the Wall (1977) utilize mediating figures such as the Recorder and the Narrator. While both works present themselves as parable plays, the inclusion of narrative instances does not streamline the perception of aesthetic signs. Instead, it attracts the recipient’s attention to the dual nature of drama as a media (a text for reading and a part of a theatrical performance). In addition, all four plays tend to deconstruct traditional cultural signs such as the wall, the hole / abyss, the veil, etc. The paradoxal situation of being forcedly freed from established patterns of interpretation awakens the addressee’s receptive potential.

Bergson: Thinking Beyond the Human Condition by Keither Ansell-Pearson

Reviewed by: Bergson: Thinking Beyond the Human Condition by Keither Ansell-Pearson Tano S. Posteraro ANSELL-PEARSON, Keith. Bergson: Thinking Beyond the Human Condition. New York: Bloomsbury, 2018. ix + 194 pp. Paper, $29.95 Why Bergson now, again? Keith Ansell-Pearson offers a renewed account of Bergson's relevance almost two decades after the publication of his last book on Bergson, Philosophy and the Adventure of the Virtual, in 2002. His earlier work was significant for the primacy it accorded to the philosophy of evolution in Bergson's thought. Thinking Beyond the Human Condition, a collection of essays written over the last two decades, introduces another dimension: the aim of overcoming the human condition through thought. This aim is what provides Ansell-Pearson with his most recent answer to the question, why Bergson now? Thinking Beyond the Human Condition is distinctive in part for its objects: for while it does include chapters on familiar Bergsonian themes—such as time (chapter 3), memory (chapter 4), and freedom (chapter 3)—it also uncovers and attends to a number of still underappreciated areas of Bergson's thought. These include the commentary on Lucretius (chapter 2), the affinities that Bergson shares with Nietzsche regarding the critique of established religion (chapter 7), and perhaps most uniquely the possibility of a nascent philosophy of education as well (chapter 8). The theme that unifies these topics is the practical orientation that Ansell-Pearson discovers in each of them. He argues that Bergson ought to be understood in line with the ancient Greek conception of philosophy as a way of life that is grounded in a way of seeing the world anew. For Ansell-Pearson's Bergson, any new way of seeing the world is the concomitant of a critique of habitual ways of perceiving and acting within it. Thus, the critique of closed society, static religion, the spatial conception of time, and the deterministic understanding of the self, are all means to the end of freeing ourselves from a set of inherited constraints (social, biological, and epistemological) and opening ourselves to the possibility of seeing, thinking, and acting in novel forms. The human condition is defined by spatialized thinking. This is a form of thinking through spatial concepts, which owes its genesis to adaptive interaction with inanimate material objects and the fabrication of tools from out of them. Spatial thinking decomposes wholes into isolable parts and regards organization on the model of built artifacts. It separates form from function, isolates bodies and systems from their relations, and reduces time to movement across fixed positions. Its basic deficiency is an inability to think the reality of duration, which consists for Bergson in the ongoing retention of a past opened onto an unforeseeable future. Spatial thinking is a form of intelligence. But intelligence is not exhaustive of thought. It is an evolved faculty, and so can be refined, enlarged, and even functionally displaced, like a spandrel. Beyond it lays what Bergson calls intuition. Intuition is a mode through which to think time. It purports to grant access to the inner reality of its objects without filtering them through the forms and frames of preexisting concepts. It is grounded in the immediate apprehension of the self by the self as an enduring or durational reality. The knowledge one has of oneself in time [End Page 129] is apparently nonconceptual. This is the core of intuition. There are several facets to Bergson's theory of this faculty: the critique of the false problems of spatial thinking, the articulation of differences in kind where intelligence sees only degree, and the comprehension of real time. Intuition culminates in the last. Its ultimate aim is to be able to transpose the immediate apprehension of the self onto other objects as well, and so grasp them in their absolute temporal reality as well, in duration. If the human condition is defined by spatialization, then it is intuition through which the means for moving beyond it can be made available to thought. Each chapter of Thinking Beyond the Human Condition treats one domain—the self, evolution, society, and so on—in which intuition can be deployed in order to escape the constraints of spatialized thought. The...

Play Is the Thing: Affect and Affordances in Alice, William, and Henry James

Play Is the Thing:Affect and Affordances in Alice, William, and Henry James Jane F. Thrailkill Literary scholars have argued that the mid-1890s were a turning point for Henry James's fictional technique, marking a period when his fiction eschews the encounter with physical places and persons for the "bodiless" realm of the modern novel of interiority (Kurnick 3). Virginia Woolf is among these observers. Commenting on James's story "The Friends of Friends," in which a character continues to serve as the story's focalizing consciousness even after she dies, Woolf writes, And yet—does it make very much difference? Henry James has only to take the smallest of steps and he is over the border. His characters with their extreme fineness of perception are already half-way out of the body. There is nothing violent in their release. They seem rather to have achieved at last what they have long been attempting—communication without obstacle. (289–90) The more rarified the consciousness, Woolf suggests, the less palpably present is the corporeal being. More recently, Kristin Boudreau has suggested that ghosts in James figure "disembodied consciousness" (44).1 Indeed, embodiment itself can look like a problem for the dramatizing of consciousness. One can point to James's stint as a playwright and the disastrous premier of Guy Domville in 1895. Biographer Leon Edel is characteristically astute describing how the actors, encumbered by their costumes, props, and mannered lines, broadcasted unscripted embarrassment that yielded awkward humor. The lead actress became "unnerved" with what one reviewer (a young George Bernard Shaw) called her "Falstaffian make-up" and struggled with her costume, "a voluminous skirt of black satin over a panier crinoline of huge dimensions" and "an enormous [End Page 212] hat" (GD 93). The face of the lead actor, a man known for his striking good looks, twisted into a crooked smile that "displayed his nervousness" (Edel, Life 149). A tipsy scene involving a potted plant projected "the sobriety of desperation" (95). A moment meant to be poignant—the lead crying out, "I am the last, my lord, of the Domvilles!"—generated a quip from the audience that in turn triggered an explosion of laughter: "It's a bloody good thing y'are" (96). Guy Domville's dispiriting opening night provided a case study in Henri Bergson's body-based theory of humor: that when the living flexibility of the human spirit stiffens into awkward poses and forms the comic spirit is unleashed. "The laughable element" for Bergson "consists of a certain MECHANICAL INELASTICITY, just where one would expect to find the wide-awake adaptability and the living pliableness of a human being" (5). Clothing for Bergson is exemplary of social forms that turn people into automata or marionettes, beings whose "very litheness … seems to stiffen as we gaze" (17). A case in point: when a young Henry James met William Thackeray, the novelist made fun of the boy's too-tight blazer. In A Small Boy and Others Henry recalls, "My sense of my jacket became from that hour a heavy one" (57). Clothing, Bergson urges, provides a deeper allegory: the "heavy" human body is to "the soul" what "the garment was to the body itself—inert matter dumped down upon living energy" (25). Keying off of Bergson, this essay examines how James in his writings about children foregrounds the affective and bodily components of thinking. Play names the activity by which children come to "mind" the world through "active repetition and experimentation which 'mentally digest' novel situations and experiences" (Reilly 80). Important for this discussion is the idea of affordances, which is a way of viewing things in the environment under the aspect of use. Affordances are essentially pragmatic: they can be seen as invitations to do something, an implicit, material call to (inter)action.2 The point is that we can kinetically engage aspects of the environment to serve a variety of needs and that embedded in the material world are potentialities with which we can improvise. When the improvisation tips away from practical effects and toward autotelic affects, the behavior becomes aesthetic: the zone of art, of play, and of sheer human vitality. In what follows...

‘Great is Darwin and Bergson his poet’: Julian Huxley's other evolutionary synthesis

SUMMARYIn 1912, Julian Huxley published his first book The Individual in the Animal Kingdom which he dedicated to the then world-famous French philosopher Henri Bergson. Historians have generally adopted one of two attitudes towards Huxley's early encounter with Bergson. They either dismiss it entirely as unimportant or minimize it, deeming it a youthful indiscretion preceding Huxley's full conversion to Fisherian Darwinism. Close biographical study and archive materials demonstrate, however, that neither position is tenable. The study of the Bergsonian elements in play in Julian Huxley's early works fed into Huxley's first ideas about progress in evolution and even his celebrated theories of bird courtship. Furthermore, the view that Huxley rejected Bergson in his later years needs to be revised. Although Huxley ended up claiming that Bergson's theory of evolution had no explanatory power, he never repudiated the descriptive power of Bergson's controversial notion of the élan vital. Even into the Modern Synthesis period, Huxley represented his own synthesis as drawing decisively on Bergson's philosophy.

Funny walking: the rise, fall and rise of the Anglo-American comic eccentric dancer

ABSTRACTThis article will attempt to reposition comic eccentric dance as a metamorphic form that still, surprisingly, exists, and is to be found with reasonable ubiquity, in renewed incarnations within twenty-first-century media.Tracing the origins of comic eccentric dance through examples of earlier comedy performance, and drawing from Bergson's comic theory of body misalliance, this article will discuss this particularly ludic fusion of music and comedy. Further changes to the form affected by modernist preoccupations during the new Jazz Age at the turn of the twentieth century will be suggested. Finally, ways in which the formulation lives on in twenty-first-century incarnations in the comedy work of, for instance, Jimmy Fallon and Ricky Gervase, and in popular television shows such as Strictly Come Dancing (BBC 2004–) and Britain's Got Talent (ITV 2006–) will be posited.

The Mind against the Hours: Bergsonian Conception of Time in Mrs Dalloway by Virginia Woolf.

The article presents an analysis of Mrs Dalloway by Virginia Woolf in the light of Henri Bergson’s theory of time, as presented specifically in Time and Free Will and Matter and Memory. The discussion focuses around the modernist concern about the struggle between the time of the mind and the time of the clock, and remarks on the importance of Bergson's theory to elucidate the actual resolution of this tension within the narrative.

Action and Forgetting

Bergson's theory of memory has been and still is object of diverse interpretations that are often contradictory and unjustly dismissive, when it is not simply ignored. This paper attempts to restore coherence and soundness of theory by tying memory to theme of freedom. The connection is actually quite direct in that Bergson tackles problem of memory immediately after publishing his first book, Time and Free Will, in which he shows how duration breeds free will. To be sure, he was then aware that freedom is given in a world governed by determinism and so could not but promptly face question of knowing how two equally undeniable facts could be reconciled or how freedom could pass through meshes of natural necessity.1 This paper shows that theme of action surmounting necessity is royal road to understanding both nature and mode of operation of memory. This approach finds its premises in Bergson's theory of perception, as elaborated in first chapter of Matter and Memory.To highlight originality and strength of Bergson, paper confronts his theory of memory with that of phenomenology with view of showing that memory cannot be reduced to psychological act of intentionality. However, without denying importance of Gilles Deleuze's ontologization of memory and its effectiveness in countering Jean Hyppolite's blurring of Bergsonian distinction between past and present, paper questions fidelity of interpretation, especially ontological cut that Deleuze inserts between past and consciousness. The suggestion is that exact nature of past should be approached from functionality of forgetting and subsequent distinction between a perpetual, ontological present and a passing or psychological present. Lastly, misunderstanding around Bergsonian notion of memory-image is clarified through a confrontation with Sartre's interpretation and a reappraisal of Bergson's analysis of motor memory.The Functionality of ForgettingBergson's commentators often underline act by which memory, contracting homogeneous vibrations of matter, gives perception its qualitative features. That qualitative aspects of our perception derive from memory does not mean that matter itself is devoid of qualitative features, but that memory accentuates by contraction heterogeneity of perceived qualities, which exist in a diluted form in matter. The retentional attribute of memory enables holding of various and successive moments of matter in one single moment of consciousness, result of which is that not only qualitative heterogeneity of matter is intensified, but also discontinuous and successive vibrations of matter are immobilized or solidified. This immobilization of movements is how they are made into objects of action. The contracting power of memory thus realizes condition of free action, namely, disengagement of living beings from extremely rapid rhythm of matter. As Bergson writes, the independence of their action upon surrounding matter becomes more and more assured in degree that they free themselves from particular rhythm which governs flow of this matter.2What is less emphasized by commentators is that very nature of perception, as understood by Bergson, is key to his theory of memory. Indeed, going against prevailing belief equating perception to a preliminary form of knowledge, Bergson squarely defines perception as action, more exactly as possible action.3 Moreover, he shows that consciousness itself emerges from delayed actions induced by ability of brain to retard responses of living body to actions of environment. The brain generates indeterminacy within interactions of material objects, thereby actualizing conscious act of objects presented as possible actions.Possible actions signify insertion of choice in determinism of matter, which choice presupposes recollecting faculty of memory, for the indetermination of acts to be accomplished requires . …

모 윌렘스의 그림책에 나타난 유머 분석

유머는 유아의 삶에서 중요한 능력 중 하나이다. 유아의 인지발달과도 관련된 유머는 유아의 양육자와의 애착, 사회적 관계 형성, 긍정적인 자아개념에도 중요한 요인이기 때문이다. 최근 국내에 소개되고 있는 칼데콧 아너상 수상자인 모 윌렘스의 그림책에는 다양한 형태의 유머들이 등장한다. 본 연구에서는 베르그송의 희극성 유형을 기초로 모 윌렘스의 수상작 5권에 나타난 유머 요소들을 분석하였다. 분석 결과, 모윌렘스 작품의 글과 그림에서 형태의 희극성, 움직임의 희극성, 상황의 희극성, 언어의 희극성, 성격의 희극성이 드러났다. 이러한 결과는 순응적 유머를 담은 모 윌렘스의 그림책이 유아, 부모, 교사의 유머 발달에도 긍정적인 영향을 줄 수 있다는 교육적 시사점을 제안하였다. Humor is an essential ability in young children's life. That is why humor has relation with cognitive development, and humor is the effective factor of attachment, social relationship, and positive self-concept for young children. For this study, the picture books written and illustrated by Mo Willems, Caldetcott Honor Medal winner, were chosen and analyzed. Mo Willems' five winning works were analyzed according to the five elements of humor from Bergson's comic theory. As results, the picture books of Mo Willems include the elements of humor, such as shape, movement, situation and language, and personality. This results suggest that the "adaptive" humor in picture books of Mo Willems should have an educational power to develop a sense of humor to young children, parents, and teachers.

Toward a Pragmatist Epistemology: Arthur O. Lovejoy's and H. S. Jennings's Biophilosophical Responses to Neovitalism, 1909-1914.

The sustained interdisciplinary debate about neovitalism between two Johns Hopkins University colleagues, philosopher Arthur O. Lovejoy and experimental geneticist H. S. Jennings, in the period 1911-1914, was the basis for their theoretical reconceptualization of scientific knowledge as contingent and necessarily incomplete in its account of nature. Their response to Hans Driesch's neovitalist concept of entelechy, and his challenge to the continuity between biology and the inorganic sciences, resulted in a historically significant articulation of genetics and philosophy. This study traces the debate's shift of problem-focus away from neovitalism's threat to the unity of science - "organic autonomy," as Lovejoy put it - and toward the potential for development of a nonmechanististic, nonrationalist theory of scientific knowledge. The result was a new pragmatist epistemology, based on Lovejoy's and Jennings's critiques of the inadequacy of pragmatism's account of scientific knowledge. The first intellectual move, drawing on naturalism and pragmatism, was based on a reinterpretation of science as organized experience. The second, sparked by Henri Bergson's theory of creative evolution, and drawing together elements of Dewey's and James's pragmatisms, produced a new account of the contingency and necessary incompleteness of scientific knowledge. Prompted by the neovitalists' mix of a priori concepts and, in Driesch's case, and adherence to empiricism, Lovejoy's and Jennings's developing pragmatist epistemologies of science explored the interrelation between rationalism and empiricism.

Denaturalizing Time: On Kris Verdonck's Performative Installation End

Originating from the avant-garde's attempt to supplant the structural limitations of perspective which ‘bound the spectator to a single point of view’, installation art emerged during the 1960s and the 1970s as a critique of the pure, self-referential work of art. Belgian artist Kris Verdonck integrates that modernist debate into his hybrid practice of performative installation. Trained in visual arts, architecture and theatre, Verdonck uses sophisticated technological devices in order to blur binary distinctions such as time- and space-art, inanimate and animate figures, and immateriality and materiality. This study focuses on End (Brussels 2008), which shows the possible final stages of a human society in ten scenes. I analyse End as an echo of the Futurists’ performance tactics, which prefigured a broadening of the formal aesthetic boundaries of performance art under the major influence of Henri Bergson's theory of time.

Meaning of Artistic Creation in terms of Henri Bergson's Theory of Creativity

The purpose of this paper is to understand Bergsons philosophy of creation and its significance in the history of modern aesthetics, through examining his concept of creativity which has influenced on the idea of contemporary art education. Therefore, I will inspect the traits of the concept of creation, namely the irreversible and the unpredictable, and to make a comparison between science and art and between fabrication and creation from the viewpoint of psychological philosophy on the meaning of human creative activity. Further, I will grasp the valuable meaning peculiar to spontaneous creative activity which is connected with the realm of art education. According to Bergson, creation is an activity in the process of becoming, and both of becoming and evolving are the continuity of creation. The phenomena of becoming is unreversible and the same kind of creation cannot be repeatable. He seeks for the incessant creative power in the artistic activity of painter and sculptor. Further, he mention that human being should be an artist or artisan who makes ones own life, and be an existence continuously operating in order to produce original figure. Aesthetic intuition and artistic creation are inseparably related to each other. Spontaneous active behaviour facilitates the manifestation of creativity. Creative activity accompanies the divine great joy. Therefore, the practical dessin education aiming at drawing a draft or map has not concerned with originality or creativity. Bergson highly appreciated Ravaissons idea of dessin education which advocate the unrestricted expression in free painting instead of mechanical technique useful for practise. We could confirm that this idea of free painting put forth buds of creative art education, and is linked together with Bergsons thoughts. Bergsons theory of creativity has played an important role to lay the foundation of art education that respects the expression of individuality and personal psychology.

Bergson and Athleticism

The work of Henri Bergson has gone almost completely unnoticed in philosophy of sport literature. This in no way indicates the level of relevance his programme may carry for the subject. Many of the entrenched debates that have historically helped to shape the field are mirrored by Bergson's own concerns regarding perception and skill acquisition. As such, a thorough study of how the Bergsonian programme might approach the topic of athletic action is in no wise an idle pursuit – in fact, very much the opposite. My intention in this paper is twofold: first, to indicate the natural commerce that exists between Bergson's philosophy and the philosophy of sport; second, and perhaps more ambitiously, to demonstrate that his approach to perception and action not only anticipates, but in some cases may help to edify, certain unresolved issues within the field. The paper develops in three parts. In part I, I provide a brief summary of Bergson's theory of perception as it is developed in Matter and Memory (1896). Parts II and III will apply that theory to two of the central aspects of human motor activity: in part II, I investigate what it is to be in possession of skilled motor behaviour – to make that behaviour ‘automatic’, as it were; in part III, the controversial subject of what it is to acquire and modify skilled motor behaviour will be examined.

The significance of plastic art expression through the impromptu action that is contemplated by Bergson's theory

The significance of plastic art expression through the impromptu action that is contemplated by Bergson's theory

‘Perform-Box’: Towards an architecture-of-time

In this paper, we introduce and discuss the itinerary of a 2nd year architectural design course, led by ourselves at Beykent U's Dept. of Architecture. The terms of our discussion traces Deleuze's reworking of Bergson's theory of duration. We retain the critical, hermeneutic and creative moments of Deleuze's selective reading of Bergson while appropriating these moments as our own means of problematizing duration in the context of architecture through performance. In the first part of the article, we follow through the methodological implications of Bergson's three rules of intuition so as to be able to propose a critical outline of “the metric logic of architecture” as an architecture-of-space. Characterized as it is by a lack of precision, this logic fails to regard for the singularity of the body by adopting repertories of knowledge that are static, mediated, and too general. In the second part, we describe the three individual yet inter-connected stages of our design studio process, with references to several student projects in detail. Our main aim here is to counter-attack the logic of metrics with the basic premises of a “parametric logic,” an architecture-of-time, which is inherently performative in nature and is based on dynamic, immediate and singular repertories of knowledge. In the third and final part, we try to highlight those aspects of intuition that in turn may provide us with a model of teaching and learning that capitalizes a re-engagement of architecture with duration. Our guiding questions in elaborating each part are: (1) What does it mean for architecture to embody time instead of representing it? (2) How can intuition turn into a design method and an experiential model in architectural education? (3) What kind of a relation between instructor and student is evoked by elan vital when taken as a pedagogical principle?