Benzene In Air Research Articles

Concentrations and trends of benzene in ambient air over New York State during 1990–2003

Since 1990s, a systematic program to measure air toxics has been active in New York State with monitors located both in urban and rural areas. In this study we examined the spatial and temporal characteristics of benzene, a known human carcinogen that is emitted by many source categories. The analysis indicates that ambient concentration levels of benzene have decreased by as much as 60% over this period not only in the ozone non-attainment area of New York City that had the reformulated gas (RFG) requirements, but also over the rest of the state as well. Although the rate of decrease appears to have flattened out in recent years, the annual average concentration levels are found to be above the health risk threshold even at the remote location, Whiteface Mountain, suggesting the need for further reductions in benzene emissions.

Nucleophilic addition of water to coordinated dipyridylethylene in rhenium(V) complexes

Complexes of general formula [ReOX2{(C5H4N)CH(O)CH2(C5H4N)}] (X = Cl, I) were prepared by reaction of trans-[ReOCl3(PPh3)2] and trans-[ReOI2(OEt)(PPh3)2] with cis-1,2-di-(2-pyridyl)ethylene (DPE) in ethanol and benzene in air. The coordinated DPE ligand undergoes addition of water at the ethylenic carbon atoms, and the (C5H4N)CH(O)CH2(C5H4N) moiety acts as a uninegative terdentate N,O,N-donor ligand. X-ray crystal structures of both complexes have been determined and show distorted octahedral geometry at the rhenium(V) centre.

Emissions of VOCs at Urban Petrol Retail Distribution Centres in India (Delhi and Mumbai)

Air pollution has assumed gigantic proportion killing almost half a million Asians every year. Urban pollution mainly comprises of emissions from buses, trucks, motorcycle other forms of motorized transport and its supporting activities. As Asia's cities continue to expand the number of vehicles have risen resulting in greater pollution. Fugitive emissions from retail distribution center in urban area constitute a major source. Petrol vapours escape during refueling adding pollutants like benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene to ambient air. This paper discusses a study on fugitive emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) at some refueling station in two metropolitan cities of India, i.e., Mumbai and Delhi. Concentration of VOCs in ambient air at petrol retail distribution center is estimated by using TO-17 method. Concentration of benzene in ambient air in Delhi clearly shows the effect of intervention in use of petroleum and diesel fuel and shift to CNG. Chemical Mass Balance (CMB) model is used to estimate source contributions. At Delhi besides diesel combustion engines, refueling emissions are also major sources. At Mumbai evaporative emissions are found to contribute maximum to Total VOC (TVOC) concentration in ambient air.

A technical review of the feasibility of producing certified reference materials for the measurement of gaseous pollutants in ambient air

Abstract Within the frame of the EU sponsored project ‘Cermatair’ (Certified Reference Materials for the Measurement of Gaseous Pollutants in Ambient Air, contract G6RD-CT-2001-00517) the feasibility of preparing and certifying reference materials for the measurement of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and benzene in ambient air was studied. The project focused on measurements at concentration levels corresponding to limit values given in EU Ambient Air Quality Directives and covered reference materials for the reference methods specified in these Directives and for alternative methods based on diffusive sampling. State-of-the-art technologies for the production and certification of the reference materials were identified through literature surveys. Limited batches of reference materials were prepared and, wherever appropriate, tested for homogeneity. The reference materials were subsequently tested in small-scale external verifications, performed by 2–4 laboratories other than the preparation laboratory, aimed at identifying possible discrepancies between concentration values from the preparation processes and experimental values. The results of these verifications revealed possible mechanisms of certification (based on preparation or measurements). The remaining materials were subjected to a one-year stability study.

Evaluation of two types of diffusive samplers and adsorbents for measuring 1,3-butadiene and benzene in air

Abstract 1,3-Butadiene and benzene are common air pollutants, the former being a suspected and the latter an established carcinogen. Road traffic and industry emissions are sources of these compounds. In order to assess the risk posed to the general population by ambient levels of these pollutants, diffusive samplers capable of monitoring them over both long timescales (weeks) and shorter periods (8–24 h) are needed. In this study, we evaluated a new diffusive sampler, the SKC-Ultra, and a partially validated sampler, the Radiello, both of which are compatible with thermal desorption. Two adsorbents, the graphitized carbon blacks Carbopack X and Carbograph 5, were also evaluated. Standard atmospheres of the target compounds were generated in order to determine uptake rates and to evaluate the effects of concentration, relative humidity, reverse-diffusion and storage of samplers. The samplers and adsorbents were also tested in a field study. Analysis and detection were performed using an automatic thermal desorber (ATD) connected to a gas chromatograph-flame ionization detector (GC/FID). Both samplers showed much higher uptake rates (ca. 25–50 fold) than those reported for the Perkin-Elmer sampler. The 24 h uptake rates for 1,3-butadiene and benzene obtained using the SKC-Ultra filled with Carbopack X were 14.9±0.8 (SD) and 16.0±1.4 (SD) mL min −1 , respectively, and the corresponding figures for the Radiello were 22.0±0.9 (SD) and 30.4±1.1 (SD) mL min −1 . Varying the atmospheric concentrations of the compounds had no effect on the uptake rate for the Carbopack X adsorbent and the samplers could be stored up to one month after sampling. Uptake rates of 1,3-butadiene declined over longer periods (one week). This was probably due to reverse diffusion, and the effect was less pronounced with the SKC-Ultra sampler. In summary, we consider the two samplers to be suitable both for stationary and personal monitoring of 1,3-butadiene and benzene, for the general population and for workplaces.

Biomarkers of exposure and effect in Bulgarian petrochemical workers exposed to benzene

Biomarkers of benzene exposure and effect were evaluated in 158 Bulgarian petrochemical workers and 50 matched controls. Air exposures to benzene averaged about 1.8 ppm, for workers and 0.02 ppm for controls. Urinary trans, trans-muconic acid, and S-phenylmuconic acid, showed dose response relationships with benzene air exposure. The dose response curve for DNA single strand breaks (SSB), but not for the metabolites, showed a saturation effect. NQO1 genotype had a significant effect on SSB. We conclude that the pathways for these metabolites may be distinct from those involved in some forms of genotoxic damage induced by benzene.

Occupational exposure to benzene in South Korea

Benzene has been used in various industries as glues or solvents in Korea. Since 1981, a preparation containing more than 1% benzene is not allowed to be manufactured, used or dealt with in the workplace, except in laboratories and in those situations benzene must be used in a completely sealed process as specified in Industrial Safety and Health Act (ISHA). Claims for compensation of hematopoietic diseases related to benzene have been rising even though the work environment has been improved. This study was conducted to assess the status of benzene exposure in different industries in Korea. We reviewed the claimed cases investigated by the Korea Occupational Safety and Health Agency (KOSHA) between 1992 and 2000. The Survey of National Work Environment Status in 1998 was analyzed to assume the number of workers and factories exposed to benzene. In 2000, six factories were investigated to evaluate benzene exposure. Personal air monitoring was performed in 61 workers and urine samples were collected from 57 workers to measure trans, trans-muconic acid ( t, t-MA). Hematologic examination has performed. Thirty-four cases of hematopoietic diseases were investigated by KOSHA including eight cases of myelodysplastic syndrome and eight cases of acute myelocytic leukemia. Eight cases were accepted as related to benzene exposure. The number of workers possibly exposed to benzene can be estimated to be 196,182 workers from 6219 factories based on the database. The geometric mean of benzene in air was 0.094 (0.005–5.311) ppm. Seven samples were higher than 1 ppm but they did not go over the 10 ppm occupational exposure limit (OEL) value in Korea. The geometric mean of trans, trans-muconic acid in urine was 0.966 (0.24–2.74) mg/g creatinine. The benzene exposure level was low except in a factory where benzene was used to polymerize other chemicals. The ambient benzene from 0.1 to 1 ppm was significantly correlated with urine t, t-MA concentration ( r = 0.733, p < 0.01). Hematologic parameters did not show significant difference among groups divided into the level of exposure. Korean workers were not highly exposed to benzene and the level of exposure was mostly less than 1 ppm. However, there might be an excessive risk of hematopoietic disorders due to relatively high past exposure. The OEL value of benzene was amended to 1 ppm from 10 ppm in 2002 and was effective since July 2003.

Environmental and occupational exposure to benzene in Thailand

Exposure to benzene in air is a concern in Thailand, particularly since it was observed that the incidence of blood-related cancers, such as leukemia and lymphoma, has increased in the past few decades. In Bangkok, the mean atmospheric levels of benzene on main roads and in schools were 33.71 and 8.25 ppb, respectively, while in gasoline service stations and petrochemical factories the mean ambient levels were 64.78 and 66.24 ppb, respectively. Cloth vendors (22.61 ppb) and grilled-meat vendors (28.19 ppb) working on the roadsides were exposed to significantly higher levels of benzene than the control group (12.95 ppb; p < 0.05). Bangkok school children (5.50 ppb) were exposed to significantly higher levels of benzene than provincial school children (2.54 ppb; p < 0.01). Factory workers (73.55 ppb) and gasoline service attendants (121.67 ppb) were exposed to significantly higher levels of benzene than control workers (4.77 ppb; p < 0.001). In accordance with the increased benzene exposures, levels of urinary trans, trans-muconic acid (MA) were significantly increased in all benzene-exposed groups. In school children, the levels of MA were relatively high, taking into account the much lower level of exposure. Blood benzene levels were also significantly increased in Bangkok school children (77.97 ppt; p < 0.01), gasoline service attendants (641.84 ppt; p < 0.05) and factory workers (572.61 ppt; p < 0.001), when compared with the respective controls. DNA damage, determined as DNA strand breaks, was found to be elevated in gasoline service attendants, petrochemical factory workers, and Bangkok school children ( p < 0.001). The cytogenetic challenge assay, which measures DNA repair capacity, showed varying levels of significant increases in the numbers of dicentrics and deletions in gasoline service attendants, petrochemical factory workers and Bangkok school children, indicating a decrease in DNA repair capacity in these subjects.

DNA damage in lymphocytes of benzene exposed workers correlates with trans,trans-muconic acids and breath benzene levels

Benzene causes many kinds of blood disorders in workers employed in many different environments. These diseases include myelodisplastic syndrome and acute and chronic myelocytic leukemia. In the present study, five occupational work places, including six industrial process types, namely, printing, shoe-making, methylene di-aniline (MDA), nitrobenzene, carbomer, and benzene production were selected, and the levels of breath benzene, and trans,trans-muconic acids ( t,t-MA) and phenol in urine were evaluated, as well as hematological changes and lymphocyte DNA damage. The concentration of benzene in breath was less than 3 ppm in the workplaces, and benzene exposure was found to be higher in work places where benzene is used, than in those where benzene is produced. At low levels of benzene exposure, urinary t,t-MA correlated strongly with benzene in air. Highest Olive tail moments were found in workers producing carbomer. Levels of breathzone benzene were found to be strongly correlated with Olive tail moment values in the lymphocytes of workers, but not with hematological data in the six workplaces types. In conclusion, the highest benzene exposures found occurred in workers at a company, which utilized benzene in the production of carbomer. In terms of low levels of exposure to benzene, urinary t,t-MA and DNA damage exhibited a strong correlation with breath benzene, but not with hematological data. We conclude that breath benzene, t,t-MA and lymphocytic DNA damage are satisfactory biomonitoring markers with respect to benzene exposure in the workplace.

Gas chromatographic–mass spectroscopic determination of benzene in indoor air during the use of biomass fuels in cooking time

A gas chromatography-mass spectroscopic method in electron ionization (EI) mode with MS/MS ion preparation using helium at flow rate 1 ml min(-1) as carrier gas on DB-5 capillary column (30 m x 0.25 mm i.d. film thickness 0.25 microm) has been developed for the determination of benzene in indoor air. The detection limit for benzene was 0.002 microg ml(-1) with S/N: 4 (S: 66, N: 14). The benzene concentration for cooks during cooking time in indoor kitchen using dung fuel was 114.1 microg m(-3) while it was 6.6 microg m(-3) for open type kitchen. The benzene concentration was significantly higher (p < 0.01) in indoor kitchen with respect to open type kitchen using dung fuels. The wood fuel produces 36.5 microg m(-3) of benzene in indoor kitchen. The concentration of benzene in indoor kitchen using wood fuel was significantly (p < 0.01) lower in comparison to dung fuel. This method may be helpful for environmental analytical chemist dealing with GC-MS in confirmation and quantification of benzene in environmental samples with health risk exposure assessment.

Air quality impacts of speed-restriction zones for road traffic

This study investigates the air quality impacts of six 20 mph zones implemented in the North West of England. A monitoring study has been undertaken to measure the concentrations of nitrogen dioxide (NO 2) and benzene in ambient air both before and after the implementation of the zones. An emissions estimation and simple dispersion modelling study has also been undertaken using traffic survey data collected at the zones at corresponding periods. The ambient air quality measurements and the modelling predictions did not show any significant impacts after implementation of the 20 mph zones.

Indoor climate in interior Alaska: simultaneous measurement of ventilation, benzene and toluene in residential indoor air of two homes

Benzene and toluene mixing ratios were measured in the indoor air of two subarctic homes during summer and winter. Benzene in the living area of these homes ranged from 1 to 25 ppbv and toluene ranged from 1 to 104 ppbv. Source strength estimate calculations supported the hypothesis that gasoline in the home's attached garage is the primary source of these compounds in living area air. These calculations demonstrated that the home with the air-to-air heat exchangers and forced ventilation had less transport of aromatics than the unventilated home. Perturbation experiment showed that a full metal gasoline can in the garage was consistent with the importance of the garage as a source for the concentration of aromatics in the air of the living spaces in these Alaskan homes. The type of ventilation system also had an important effect on the quality of air in the living area.

Preparation of Anodised Aluminium Catalysts by an Electrolysis Supporting Method for VOC Catalytic Combustion

Catalytic combustion of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) benefits from a low oxidation temperature due to less energy consumption. It is widely applied in industry. A novel technique of Pt/Al2O3/Al catalyst preparation is presented in this paper. Al2O3 film was formed on an Al plate by anodic oxidation in 4% oxalic acid solution at 50 A·m–2 current density. After anodic oxidation, Pt was supported on the oxidized plate utilizing an electrolysis supporting method with an alternating current in an aqueous solution of chloroplatinic acid hexahydrate under both high and low voltages. Catalytic activity was evaluated by both toluene and benzene combustion. Dispersion of platinum in developed catalysts was about 20%, measured by CO pulse adsorption.In the activity test, toluene or benzene was mixed with air and then toluene–air and benzene–air mixtures combusted on the developed catalysts. It is shown that a catalyst prepared under a high voltage has a higher reaction rate than that one prepared under low voltage. This may be explained by that large platinum particles were formed on the film by high voltage. In the running time of 140 hours duration, there exists an induction process of about 10 hours for fresh catalysts, in which, the conversion of toluene was promoted by up to about 8%, and with no obvious change in the reactions that follow. Experimental results indicated that electrolysis impregnation can be regarded as a short-time supporting method for preparing catalyst.

Biological monitoring among benzene-exposed workers in Bangalore city, India

Environmental and biological monitoring was carried out in the winter season of 2004 for 30 gasoline station workers (study subjects) and 30 office workers (controls) of Bangalore city, India. Personal air sampling was carried out in the breathing zone of workers using an Anasorb CSC sorbent tube (SKC 226-01) fitted to the low-flow personal samplers (PCXR4 and pocket pump Model No. 210-1002) at a flow rate of 200 ml min−1 during the shift work of 8 h. The benzene content adsorbed in the sorbent tube (SKC 226-01) was desorbed with 1 ml of benzene-free carbon disulfide on a developing vibrator and later analysed by Trace GC fitted with MXT-624 column and flame ionization detector. The mean time weighted average benzene concentration found among study and controls was 1.10±1.08 and 0.070±0.035 mg m−3, respectively. Biological monitoring for benzene exposure was performed by measuring trans,trans muconic acid (t,t-MA) in the end shift urine samples using HPLC-UV technique. End-shift urine samples (1 ml) were adjusted to pH 7–9 with phosphate buffer pH 7.4 passed through the preconditioned Q-SAX anion-exchange cartridge and the (t,t-MA) is extracted with 10% acetic acid and later analysed by HPLC-UV detection The mean t,t-MA found among study and controls were 563.16±281.81 and 266.88±110.65 µg g−1 creatinine. About 50% of the study subjects (15) have higher t,t-MA values than the biological exposure index of the American Conference of Government Industrial Hygienist (ACGIH). Correlation is significant at 5% level (p<0.05) between personal air benzene concentration and urinary t,t-MA in the study group. Based on these findings, the t,t-MA can be used as a biomarker for benzene exposure.

Determination of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes in air by solid phase micro-extraction/gas chromatography/mass spectrometry

The aim of the study was to analyse BTEX compounds (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes) in air by solid phase micro-extraction/gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (SPME/GC/MS), and this article presents the features of the calibration method proposed. Examples of real-world air analysis are given. Standard gaseous mixtures of BTEX in air were generated by dynamic dilution. SPME sampling was carried out under non-equilibrium conditions using a Carboxen/PDMS fibre exposed for 30 min to standard gas mixtures or to ambient air. The behaviour of the analytical response was studied from 0 to 65 microg/m3 by adding increasing amounts of BTEX to the air matrix. Detection limits range from 0.05 to 0.1 microg/m3 for benzene, depending on the fibre. Inter-fibre relative standard deviations (reproducibility) are larger than 18%, although the repeatability for an individual fibre is better than 10%. Therefore, each fibre should be considered to be a particular sampling device, and characterised individually depending on the required accuracy. Sampling indoor and outdoor air by SPME appears to be a suitable short-delay diagnostic method for volatile organic compounds, taking advantage of short sampling time and simplicity.

Utilization of a multimembrane inlet and a cyclic sudden sampling introduction mode in membrane inlet mass spectrometry

Sudden sampling introduction into a membrane inlet mass spectrometer (MIMS) considerably improves the selectivity of the membrane inlet and is therefore applicable even for compounds with low permeabilities through a silicone membrane. In this study the basics of cyclic non-steady-state sudden increase sample injection were studied using a three-membrane inlet and a portable sector double-focusing mass spectrometer. The operational parameters of the inlet system providing the most efficient enrichment of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in air were defined. Simulation of the diffusion process following sudden sample introduction into the three-membrane inlet was also carried out. Experimental testing of the three-membrane inlet system with the cyclic sudden sample injection mode for benzene, toluene, styrene, and xylene in air was performed. The simulation and the experimental results demonstrated that, when this mode is used, the VOCs/nitrogen relative enrichment factor of samples introduced into the mass spectrometer equipped with a three-membrane inlet is increased by a factor of ∼105 compared with a direct introduction method. This effect may be used to decrease detection limits of compounds obtained with mass spectrometry to decrease matrix flow through the inlet at the same detection limits.

Recognition of benzene, toluene and xylene using TGS array integrated with linear and non-linear classifier

Three volatile organic compounds (VOCs): benzene, toluene and xylene were measured with an array of six Taguchi gas sensors in the air with variable humidity content. The recognition of single compounds was performed, based on measurement results. The principal component analysis (PCA) pointed at humidity as the main classification factor in the measurement data set. The linear discriminant analysis (LDA) was applied to overcome this drawback and enforce classification with respect to benzene, toluene or xylene. It was shown that discriminant function analysis (DFA), which is an LDA method allowed for 100% success rate in test samples recognition of benzene. It did not allow for accurate recognition of test samples of toluene or xylene. Following, the non-linear classifier, radial basis function neural network (RBFNN) was applied. A specific configuration of input ‘s was found, which provided for successful recognition of each single compound: benzene, toluene or xylene in air with variable humidity content.

Photocatalytic Oxidation of Benzene in Air

Photocatalytic oxidation of benzene in air at room temperature was studied in order to obtain the information on its reactivity on the photoirradiated TiO2 catalyst. The objective of this paper is to describe in detail the dependence of the rate for benzene photooxidation on humidity, initial benzene concentration, and incident light intensity, since they are important factors for construction of VOC control system utilizing solar energy. The reaction mechanism is also discussed to understand the decomposition behavior of benzene.

Recognition of benzene, toluene and xylene using TGS array integrated with linear and non-linear classifier

Three volatile organic compounds (VOCs): benzene, toluene and xylene were measured with an array of six Taguchi gas sensors in the air with variable humidity content. The recognition of single compounds was performed, based on measurement results. The principal component analysis (PCA) pointed at humidity as the main classification factor in the measurement data set. The linear discriminant analysis (LDA) was applied to overcome this drawback and enforce classification with respect to benzene, toluene or xylene. It was shown that discriminant function analysis (DFA), which is an LDA method allowed for 100% success rate in test samples recognition of benzene. It did not allow for accurate recognition of test samples of toluene or xylene. Following, the non-linear classifier, radial basis function neural network (RBFNN) was applied. A specific configuration of input ‘s was found, which provided for successful recognition of each single compound: benzene, toluene or xylene in air with variable humidity content.

Utilization of a multimembrane inlet and a cyclic sudden sampling introduction mode in membrane inlet mass spectrometry

Sudden sampling introduction into a membrane inlet mass spectrometer (MIMS) considerably improves the selectivity of the membrane inlet and is therefore applicable even for compounds with low permeabilities through a silicone membrane. In this study the basics of cyclic non-steady-state sudden increase sample injection were studied using a three-membrane inlet and a portable sector double-focusing mass spectrometer. The operational parameters of the inlet system providing the most efficient enrichment of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in air were defined. Simulation of the diffusion process following sudden sample introduction into the three-membrane inlet was also carried out. Experimental testing of the three-membrane inlet system with the cyclic sudden sample injection mode for benzene, toluene, styrene, and xylene in air was performed. The simulation and the experimental results demonstrated that, when this mode is used, the VOCs/nitrogen relative enrichment factor of samples introduced into the mass spectrometer equipped with a three-membrane inlet is increased by a factor of ∼10 5 compared with a direct introduction method. This effect may be used to decrease detection limits of compounds obtained with mass spectrometry to decrease matrix flow through the inlet at the same detection limits.