Benevolent Sexism Research Articles

Why is the lack of support for women’s rights appealing? Considering the roles of dispositional system-justifying motives and ambivalent sexism.

Why is the lack of support for women’s rights appealing? Considering the roles of dispositional system-justifying motives and ambivalent sexism.

Who Believes Gender Research? How Readers’ Gender Shapes the Evaluation of Gender Research

Prior research finds that relative to women, men are less receptive to scientific evidence of gender bias against women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, whereas the researcher’s gender does not influence evaluations of gender research. Do these effects hold for research documenting workplace gender inequalities more generally? In a preregistered survey experiment fielded on Prolific, survey participants were shown tweets from a fictitious researcher—a woman or a man—that summarized recent research about workplace gender inequality, and then they were asked to rate the research. Consistent with prior work, men viewed research findings about workplace gender inequality less positively than women; researcher gender did not significantly influence evaluations. Men’s higher endorsement of gender system justification beliefs and hostile sexism appear to partially explain their less positive views, suggesting that men view gender research less positively in part because it challenges the idea that men’s relative advantages in the workplace are natural and earned.

Gender Bias in Perceptions of Military Leaders: Hostile Sexism Moderates Men’s Evaluations of Faces

Gender Bias in Perceptions of Military Leaders: Hostile Sexism Moderates Men’s Evaluations of Faces

Sexism and Feminist Conspiracy Beliefs: Hostile Sexism Moderates the Link Between Feminist Conspiracy Beliefs and Rape Myth Acceptance.

This research examined the effect of belief in feminist conspiracy theories and sexist ideology on endorsing rape myths. Study 1 (N = 201) uncovered that the relationship between feminist conspiracy beliefs and rape myth acceptance was conditional on higher levels of hostile sexism. Study 2 (N = 552) demonstrated that for those with higher hostile sexism, exposure to feminist conspiracy theories (vs. control) increased feminist conspiracy beliefs, which were then associated with rape myths. The current research suggests that the link between feminist conspiracy beliefs and rape myths could result from such beliefs upholding a hostile sexist view of women.

A Study Examining Gender Bias of Female Students in Group Activity Teams

Gender bias is a pervasive issue, and group activities that are commonly seen in schools, workplaces, and other environments may be a form in which gender bias is manifested and exacerbated. Therefore, understanding the existence and impact of gender bias in group activities is of great significance for promoting gender equality and justice. This study adopted a mixed-methods research design, integrating both questionnaire surveys and in-depth interviews, and explored whether female students feel gender bias in group activity teams, in order to further understand the specific manifestations of gender bias in group activity teams and the real experiences of female students. The study found that after group activities, the average scores of Hostile Sexism and Benevolent Sexism among female students increased, indicating that the activities may exacerbate gender bias and strengthen gender stereotypes. In-depth interviews further validated this finding and provided more specific examples. The interviewed female students reported that they experienced gender bias such as interruptions to their speaking and dismissal of their opinions, as well as stereotypical expectations of gender roles. To minimize gender bias, they suggested countermeasures such as grouping by gender and increasing gender equality education and training. These findings reveal the potential impact of group activities on gender bias and provide important references for improving activity design and promoting gender equality.

Evidence of Ambivalent Sexism in Female Video Game Character Designs

ABSTRACT This report shares the results of a systematic, quantitative analysis of themes resonant with ambivalent sexism in playable female video game characters. Applying principles of ambivalent sexism’s underlying concepts of paternalism, compulsory heterosexuality, and gender differentiation, we developed a coding scheme for assessing themes in character personalities, stories, and other aspects of their characterizations. We sampled games developed in Japan and the United States released between 1983 and 2017 (N = 398) and derived data from primary texts (i.e. video game content) and paratexts (i.e. character wiki entries). Our results provide evidence of sexist portrayals for playable characters. Evidence of sexist portrayals emerged with meaningful associations observed among theoretically relevant concepts (i.e. capability, sexualization, development location). We discuss our findings with respect to ambivalent sexism theory and the sociocultural contexts of video game development in Japan and the United States.

Sexism and women's access to justice: Feminist judging in Indonesian Islamic judiciary

Sexism in the judicial system is a persistent problem in countries where women frequently are held to a different moral standard than men. As such, some advocates and legal experts argue that feminist judging practices are necessary for ensuring women's access to justice. While many studies focus on the effect of sexism on gender inequality in politics, the extent to which sexism may lead to further gender inequality in the judiciary remains understudied. Additionally, much research on feminist judging relies on qualitative data from trial or court transcripts to determine judges' approaches, but quantitative examinations of feminist judging are still few. Drawing on a mixed methods sequential explanatory approach, our study examines how sexism contributes to shaping the support for feminist judging in the Indonesian Islamic judiciary. We use several cases of polygamy, marriage dispensation, divorce involving domestic violence, and post-divorce alimony as proxies to measure the support for feminist judging. The findings show that hostile sexism is not statistically associated with the support for feminist judging, but benevolent sexism facilitates judges' support for feminist approaches. Female judges are more likely to support feminist judging than male judges.

Are heavy metal fans sexist? The relationship between metal music depicting misogynistic violence and sexism

An exploratory study was conducted to investigate the relationship between heavy metal music and sexism based on metal subgenre preferences, lyrical preferences, artwork preferences and associated consumer behaviours. Previous literature has been inconsistent in defining the relationship between music, lyrics and sexism. Data was collected from 423 fans of heavy metal music including their subgenre, lyrical and album cover content preferences, affective responses to lyrics and album artwork, and intended consumer behaviours respective to metal music with misogynistic themes. It was found that the style of metal music preferred by listeners, including specific subgenres of styles associated with misogynistic themes like death metal, was unrelated to sexism. Hostile sexism was higher among those that preferred lyrics and imagery depicting misogynistic violence. Those higher in hostile sexism experienced more positive and less aversive emotions in response to both lyrics and imagery that depicted misogynistic violence, and they reported being more likely to buy albums, clothing, wear clothing and hang posters in their homes that depicted misogynistic violence. This provides evidence that enjoyment of specific styles of metal music is not associated with sexism, but there may be a subgroup of more sexist individuals that are especially drawn to lyrics and images depicting misogynistic violence in heavy metal.

Evaluation of ambivalent sexism in Colombia and validation of the ASI and AMI brief scales.

Sexism has implications for people's physical and mental health. Thus, understanding sexism and its prevalence is key to understanding the phenomenon. In the current study, 717 Colombian men and women completed the brief scales of Ambivalent Sexism toward women and men and the Gender Identity Scale. The assessment was conducted using a web-based method. Both scales, as expected, were two-dimensional. Reliability ranged from .83 to .88. Moderate and high correlations were observed with the Gender Identity Scale. Men showed higher levels of hostile and benevolent sexism toward women and benevolent sexism toward men. It was also found that the higher the level of education, the lower the rates of sexism toward men and women. The brief scales were valid and reliable for measuring hostile and benevolent sexism in Colombia.

Affective and Attitudinal Features of Benevolent Heterosexism in Italy: The Italian Validation of the Multidimensional Heterosexism Inventory

IntroductionPeople who belong to a sexual and gender minority often face prejudices that have their roots in heterosexism, a sociocultural system that can manifest itself in different ways and sometimes in a seemingly benevolent fashion. The present study examined the psychometric properties of the Multidimensional Heterosexism Inventory (MHI), a scale assessing aversive, amnestic, paternalistic, and positive stereotypic heterosexism, in an Italian sample.MethodsTwo hundred one cisgender and heterosexual individuals (129 women and 72 men) aged 18 to 81 years (M = 36.42, SD = 12.56) were recruited online between May and October 2022 and answered questions about social dominance orientation, right-wing authoritarianism, ambivalent sexism, and attitudes toward lesbians and gay men.ResultsConfirmatory factor analysis showed that the original 4-factor model of the scale fit the data well. Predictive and convergent validity of the Italian version of the MHI was adequate, whereas discriminant validity was not fully achieved due to overlap of multidimensional heterosexism with hostile and benevolent sexism and authoritarianism. Scores were higher for aversive and amnesic heterosexism in men than in women, but not for paternalistic and positive stereotypic heterosexism. Finally, less educated participants, those with no LGBTQI + friends, and religious participants were higher in all MHI subscales than their counterparts.ConclusionsThis study provides the first evidence for the validity and reliability of an Italian version of the MHI.Policy ImplicationsUsing the MHI can help to make visible not only the explicit but also the subtle forms of heterosexism, thus recognizing the multidimensional nature of heterosexism produced in social institutions.

The pervasive lack of gender diversity in the boardroom: The inconvenience of ambivalent sexism

Orientation: Redressing gender inequality in the boardroom remains a persistent challenge for organisations, both globally and in South Africa.Research purpose: The purpose of this study was to highlight the need for policymakers to ensure that efforts to redress gender inequality in the boardroom have a firmer, more ethical foundation based on exploring dimensions of sexisms.Motivation for the study: Women continue to be under-represented in the boardroom. This study is concerned with determining whether benevolent sexism might provide some explanation for this form of gender inequality.Research approach/design and method: A quantitative study was conducted, with 172 board members, C-suite executives, directors and senior managers of publicly listed companies completing a self-reported questionnaire and a survey that measured hostile sexism and benevolent sexism.Main findings: The findings showed no significant difference between the different age categories in the sample. However, there was a significant difference in benevolent sexism between men and women, with women exhibiting higher scores, which was indicative of the condonation of benevolent sexism. The findings also showed a significant correlation between hostile and benevolent sexism, suggesting that benevolent sexism legitimises sexist behaviours.Practical/managerial implications: Mechanisms to address gender inequality in the workplace need to be simultaneously clear and nuanced because of the deep psychosocial beliefs among men and women that constrain efforts to arrest gender discrimination.Contribution/value-add: The pervasiveness of ambivalent sexism contributes to the persistent lack of gender diversity, particularly as it pertains to the condoning and perpetuation of sexist practices by both sexes. While no causation can be inferred, there is substantive corroborative research globally attesting to the effects of sexism on decision-makers’ actions in different contexts, including in South Africa.

Technically in love: Individual differences relating to sexual and platonic relationships with robots

Incremental advancements in technology present researchers with opportunities to examine and predict human behavior before the integration of technology into daily life. Previous studies have identified trends in both the design and reception of current social robotic technologies, including gender biases and social “othering”, which may affect how humans interact with more advanced robotic technologies in the future. The aim of the current study was to explore whether preconceived beliefs about gender inequality, interest in casual sex, and social hierarchies would relate individuals’ interest in engaging in platonic friendships (“robofriendship”) or sexual relationships (“robosexuality”) with hypothetical human-like robots. Two-hundred and twelve participants completed an online survey measuring gender, ambivalent sexism, social dominance orientation, and sociosexual orientation in relation to individuals’ interest in both robofriendship and robosexuality. It was found that hostile sexism positively predicted interest in robosexuality, particularly for men (β = .16, b = .27, 95% CI [.03, .30], t(209) = 2.364, p = .019). Conversely, hostile sexism negatively predicted robofriendship, and significant interactions effects were found in that at lower levels of SDO, women maintained greater interest in robofriendship than men (β = .26, b = .54, 95% CI [.09, .99], t(208) = −2.235, p = .02). The current study provides preliminary evidence to suggest that preconceived beliefs about social hierarchy and gender inequality may impact romantic and platonic interactions between humans and robots. Limitations and future directions are also discussed.

Ambivalent Sexism Explored: A Theoretical Examination of Gender Roles in The Silent Patient by Alex Michaelides

This article explores the portrayal of sexism in Michaelides's novel, The Silent Patient, using a gendered approach and drawing on Glick and Fiske's ambivalent sexism theory. This research aims to analyze the frequency and types of sexist depictions in the novel, particularly focusing on Hostile and Benevolent sexist attitudes. The analysis delves into the underlying dichotomy between Hostile and Benevolent attitudes towards the female characters, Alicia and Kathy. It also explores the contrasting representations of weakness and dependence associated with Alicia and Kathy, juxtaposed with the strength, resilience, and agency embodied by characters like Theo, Gabrielle, and the doctors at the Groove. Additionally, the prevalence of paternalism, gender differentiation, and heterosexuality as components of Hostile and Benevolent sexism is investigated to identify the dominant characteristic. By emphasizing the depiction of Hostile and Benevolent sexist attitudes, this research contributes to the ongoing efforts to challenge and dismantle gender stereotypes.

Should we all be feminists? Development of the Liberal Feminist Attitudes Scale

IntroductionThe current social zeitgeist is characterized different feminist tendencies, some of which are embedded in a neoliberal logic. Although the impact of modern mainstream feminism on the individual and society is a subject of critical scholarly debate, there is a lack of suitable instruments to measure the complexity of modern feminist attitudes.MethodsIn three studies, we developed a scale assessing liberal feminist attitudes and tested its factor structure and validity. In Study 1, we generated an item pool capturing liberal feminist attitudes and presented it to a sample of N = 473 with scales for Ambivalent Sexism (hostile and benevolent), Social Dominance Orientation, System Justification, Neoliberal Beliefs, and the self-labeling as a feminist. In Studies 2 (N = 310) and 3 (N = 214) we aimed at replicating the factor structure of the LFAS from Study 1 and confirmed the construct and criterion validity with measurements of the constructs Self-Identification as a Feminist, Personal Progress, Conformity to Feminine Norms and a concrete behavioral measure that captured the willingness to receive information about feminism in the future.ResultsExploratory factor analysis (Study 1) yielded a 4-factor structure with 17 items-the Liberal Feminist Attitudes Scale (LFAS). In Studies 2 and 3, this 4-factorial model showed excellent model fit, internal consistency and convergent as well as discriminant and criterion validity, at least within a particular demographic (i.e., German students).DiscussionThe LFAS holds the potential to provide psychologists with a tool to examine and analyse liberal feminist attitudes comprehensively.

Ambivalent sexism, mental health and partner violence among opposite-sex and same-sex couples

Ambivalent sexism has been described as influencing relationships in intimacy and partner abuse. Among 456 Spaniards, this study aimed to explore the association between mental health, ambivalent sexism and violence among opposite-sex and same-sex couples. Results showed that participants in abusive relationships presented higher levels of ambivalent and hostile sexism, regardless of partner’s sex. Psychological violence was associated with ambivalent and hostile sexism. Moderate physical violence was linked to hostile sexism. Participants in abusive relationships reported poorer mental health indexes. These findings highlight the need of interventions to focus on dimensions as sexism towards women, even when considering same-sex couples.

Pornography, sexual orientation and ambivalent sexism in young adults in Spain

BackgroundOn line platforms offer access to an almost unlimited variety of pornographic material that shows high levels of sexism. Despite this fact, there are still few studies that assess the effect of pornography on sexism in young adults The aim of this study is to analyze the association of pornography consumption and sexual orientation with benevolent sexism (BS) and hostile sexism (HS) in young men and women.MethodsWe surveyed 2,346 people aged 18–35 years old. Multiple regression models were carried out for BS and HS. The independent variables: current pornography consumption and sexual orientation. Covariates: socio-demographic variables -age, sex, level of education and place of birth-.ResultsA) HS: Men who consumed pornography had higher median values of HS than those who did not [β(95%CI):2.39(0.67;4.10)]. Homosexual/ bisexual men displayed lower values of HS than heterosexual men [β(95%CI):-2.98(-4.52;-1.45)]. The increase in HS levels associated with pornography consumption was notably greater in homosexual and bisexual women relative to heterosexual women, where that pattern was not observed [β(95%CI for interaction): 2.27(0.11; 4.43)]. B) BS: Mean values of BS were observed to be lower for both women [β(95%CI):-2.16(-2.99;-1.32)] and men [β(95%CI):-4.30(-5.75;-2.86)] who consumed pornography compared to those who did not. Homosexual/bisexual men recorded mean values of BS lower than heterosexual men [β(95%CI):-3.10(-4.21;-1.99)].ConclusionsPornography consumption is related to sexism and differs according to sex and sexual orientation. As sexism is the substratum of inequality between men and women, it is urgent to launch affective-sexual education programs for young people that take into account the determinants of sexism.

Mixed-method Study on Gender Disparity in Healthcare Leadership Positions in Southern Ethiopia

Gender disparity in healthcare leadership positions is a multifactorial phenomenon based primarily on how society has been socialised according to gender roles and defined how women and men progress in the workplace, including healthcare. The purpose of this mixed-method study was based on the theory of hostile and benevolent sexism as applied in organisations and explored gender disparity in healthcare leadership positions. Quantitative survey data were collected using a structured questionnaire from 414 healthcare professionals, and qualitative data were collected from 21 healthcare professionals using a semi-structured interview guide containing open questions. Quantitative data were analysed using SPSS version 25. A descriptive phenomenology using Colaizzi’s (1978) approach was used for the qualitative strand. The findings show a noticeable increase in women’s promotion to low-level leadership positions. The quantitative results were corroborated by the qualitative findings, which confirmed that healthcare workers faced several challenges in getting promoted and that cultural bias persists. Participants of both genders reported that female promotions are negatively impacted by gender roles, inherent gender bias, and family responsibilities. This study documents changes in the way men view women’s abilities in the workplace. Although there are noticeable improvements in low-level leadership positions, serious issues persist, such as the lack of support for female healthcare workers with young families and limited recognition of women’s abilities to perform at the level of their male counterparts. It is crucial to establish gender-sensitive recovery interventions that facilitate women’s progress in leadership positions. Further research and empowerment programmes are necessary to enhance women’s self-assurance.

What makes a liberal feminist? Identifying predictors of heterosexual women and men's liberal feminist ideology

AbstractIn the wake of the #MeToo movement, liberal feminism has garnered the spotlight on equal rights for women. However, what factors contribute to men and women developing liberal feminist ideologies? This is important to understand as this ideology is predictive of support for political and social policies that are currently under debate in the United States. In this survey study (149 heterosexual men and 233 heterosexual women) we examined attitudinal and ideological variables that underlie liberal feminist ideology. The results of this study indicate that heterosexual men scored significantly lower on liberal feminist ideology and significantly higher on traditional attitudes toward women, hostile and benevolent sexism, gender‐specific justification, rape myths, and conservative political affiliation compared to heterosexual women. Furthermore, traditional attitudes toward women, hostile and benevolent sexism, gender‐specific justification, rape myths, political leanings, and gender accounted for almost 70% of the variance in liberal feminist ideology. Participant gender did not moderate the regression analyses, suggesting that men and women are influenced similarly in determining what attitudes predict liberal feminist ideologies. Implications for support for public policy are addressed.

Individual difference predictors of the Attitudes Towards Asexuality scale

While predictors of attitudes toward lesbians and gay men, as well as bisexuals and trans individuals, have been investigated relatively thoroughly, attitudes toward asexuality are a recently emerging field. The current study investigates predictors of attitudes toward asexuality, operationally defined using the Attitudes Towards Asexuality (ATA) scale created by Hoffarth and colleagues in 2016 . Predictors included authoritarianism, social dominance orientation, intergroup disgust sensitivity, sexism, erotophobia–erotophilia, sociosexuality, motivation to respond without prejudice, singlism, and demographic characteristics of the perceiver. Response to the ATA indicated positivity toward asexuality, with the majority of participants expressing disagreement with the negative statements about asexuality. Many of the individual difference variables correlated moderately with the ATA. Multiple regression analyses indicated that significant predictors of the ATA included right-wing authoritarianism, internal motivation to respond without prejudice, intergroup disgust sensitivity, benevolent sexism, participant sexual orientation, and religiosity. Together, these six predictors accounted for half of the variance in the ATA. The findings of this study suggest that attitudes toward asexuality are similarly predicted by those individual difference variables that predict attitudes toward gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and transpersons.

Exploring Biphobia Among Heterosexuals and LGBTQ + Individuals in Spain: Psychometric Properties of the Biphobia Scale in a Spanish Sample

Self-reported questionnaires for assessing biphobia have been developed and validated in English-speaking countries. In Spain, despite considerable rates of biphobia, there is a lack of validated instruments to assess this phenomenon. The aim of this study was to explore the psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the Biphobia Scale (BS), a useful self-reported measure of biphobia. Four hundred and sixty-six participants from the general population in Spain completed the BS, the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory, the Modern Homophobia Scale, and the Internalized Homonegativity Scale. The factorial structure, internal consistency, and convergent validity were analyzed. The results of the factor analysis support a one-factor solution. Cronbach’s alpha and Omega coefficient were .95 and .96, respectively. Evidence of convergent validity was provided, as shown by the significant and positive correlations between biphobia, sexism, homophobia, and internalized homonegativity. The results support the use of the BS in the Spanish population as a valid and reliable measure.