Benelux Countries Research Articles

Reflection of Industrial Structure in Innovative Capability

One of the declared strategic objectives of the European Union is an increase of applied innovations. The article draws attention to the correlation between innovation capacity and the industrial structure of economies. Its aim is to investigate whether selected groups of European countries show similar trends in industrial structure development reflected in its capacity. For the analysis and evaluation of development in the period 2006-2013, we selected three groups of countries: Benelux, the Visegrad Group and the Baltic Assembly. The capability evaluation, which is represented by the Global Innovation Index, is based partly on an ordinal analysis of its basic indices, but also on the evaluation of gamma-convergence. To assess the evolution of industrial structure, which is divided into five industry groups, the SHA-DE method based on gross added value is applied. The results show the signs of greater dynamics in strengthening innovation when grouping innovation-weaker countries; in terms of the development of disparities in capability, the measured values suggest a divergence of innovatively developed Benelux countries, while in the less developed countries of the Visegrad Group and Baltic Assembly the ranges of disparities are rather stable and tend to weak convergence. In terms of industrial structure, the main differences can be seen among the surveyed groups both in the secondary sector, but particularly in the tertiary innovative sector. And it is the results obtained in relation to the share and development of the innovative tertiary sector that confirms the assumption that the innovativeness of a country is largely derived not from the entire economy, but mainly from the specific status of a narrow group of industries that can be largely considered the determinants of innovation. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5755/j01.ee.27.3.13634

Detainees, staff, and health care services in immigration detention centres: a descriptive comparison of detention systems in Sweden and in the Benelux countries

BackgroundImmigration detention has been shown to negatively affect the health and well-being of detainees. The aim of the study was to describe and compare policies and practices that could affect the health and well-being of immigrant detainees in the Benelux countries (Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg) to those in Sweden.DesignThis was a case study. Data were collected in two phases using a questionnaire developed particularly for this study. In the first phase, authorities in the Benelux countries responded to the questionnaire via email. During the second phase, a research team visited detention centres in the Benelux countries to observe and further explore, strengthening findings through triangulation. Data on Swedish detention centres were collected in previous studies.ResultsCompared to the Benelux countries, Sweden has limited health care provision available in the detention centres. Swedish detention centres did not have mental health care professionals working at the centres and had fewer restrictions within the centres with regard to access to mobile phone, internet, and various recreational activities. Compared to Sweden, the detention centres in the Benelux countries have more staff categories providing services to the detainees that are provided with relevant and timely on-the-job training. All the countries, except Belgium, provide subsistence allowances to detainees.ConclusionDespite the Common European Asylum System framework, differences exist among the four European Union member states in providing services to immigrant detainees. This study highlights these differences, thereby providing a window on how these diverse approaches may serve as a learning tool for improving services offered to immigrant detainees. In Sweden, the health care available to detainees and training and recruitment of staff should be improved, while the Benelux countries should strive to reduce restrictions within detention centres.

The Czechoslovak Factor in Western Alliance Building, 1945–1948

This article assesses the role of the Czechoslovak coup d’état in February 1948 in the establishment of the Brussels Pact a month later and formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in April 1949. The article places these developments in the larger context of post-1945 national security policymaking in several countries, weighing the impact of the Czechoslovak coup on relations among seven countries on national security issues at the outset of the Cold War: Czechoslovakia, France, the United Kingdom, the three Benelux countries, and the United States. The article shows that the only proper way to evaluate the effect of the Communist takeover in Czechoslovakia on the formation of the Western alliance is by looking at the considerations present in each country and seeing how they interacted with one another. The Czechoslovak factor varied in its magnitude from country to country.

Active euthanasia in Colombia and assisted suicide in California

The institution of active euthanasia has been legal in Colombia since 2015. In California, the regulation on physician-assisted suicide will come into effect on January 1, 2016. The legal institution of active euthanasia is not accepted under the law of the United States of America, however, physician-assisted suicide is accepted in an increasing number of member states. The related regulation in Oregon is imitated in other member states. In South America, Colombia is not the first country to legalize active euthanasia: active euthanasia has been legal in Uruguay since 1932. The North American legal tradition markedly differs from the South American one and both are incompatible with the Central European rule of law. In Hungary and in most European Union countries, solely the passive form of euthanasia is legal. In the Benelux countries, the active form of euthanasia is legal because the supranational law of the European Union does not prohibit it. Notwithstanding, European Union law does not prescribe legalization of either the active form of euthanasia, or the physician-assisted suicide.

Critical Success Factors of Synchromodality: Results from a Case Study and Literature Review

Even though synchromodality is a promising new concept to promote modal shift, it is virtually unknown in Europe except for the Benelux countries. In synchromodal transport chains, real-time switching between transport modes enables efficient supply chains in which shippers book their transport service “mode-free”. In this paper we use a literature review and an expert panel to identify critical success factors which ensure the effective implementation of synchromodality. Our results suggest that there is quite uniform agreement upon importance and feasibility of various success factors with cooperation being the most crucial success factor.

La neutralité irlandaise, la Shoah et la Seconde Guerre mondiale

The policy of Irish neutrality during World War Two was implemented in a most punctilious fashion by the Taoiseach, Eamon de Valera, and the Irish government. The opposition parties, Fine Gael and Labour, supported de Valera, and rooted the policy in a bipartisan agreement for the duration of the war. However strict de Valera appeared to interpret his obligations as a neutral, recent research demonstrates that the Irish government operated a two-track policy between 1939 and 1945. While appearing to remain equidistant between Axis and Allies in public, de Valera and his cabinet acted in a partisan, pro-Allied fashion behind the scenes, giving clandestine support to London and Washington by sharing intelligence, providing information on shipping movements, giving information about the weather, combatting Axis spy networks in the country, and responding very supportively through its diplomatic network to seek, unsuccessfully, exit visas for Jews faced with imminent deportation to death camp in occupied Europe. In that latter endeavour, the Irish government worked closely with the Chief Rabbi of Palestine, Isaac Herzog, to combat the deportation of Jews to the death camps. While there was little of a practical nature neutral Ireland could do during the period after the invasion of France and the Benelux countries in May 1940, it did the little it could to respond generously at a diplomatic level to the pleas of different international Jewish organisations for Dublin’s help in rescuing Jews foredoomed to deportation and destruction. While in no sense heroic, de Valera and his government did not look on passively when confronted by the horrors of the holocaust or, in the post-war period, when aid and shelter were sought by Jewish refugees. In the 1960s, the Irish Jewish community honoured Eamon de Valera was honoured by the planting of a forest in his name in Israel in recognition of his support over the years to Irish Jews.

The Low Countries and Eastern Europe during the Cold War: Introduction

This introductory article critically assesses the main themes and issues that have dominated the historiography of the Low Countries and Eastern Europe during the Cold War. It reflects on the ways in which new archival sources and trends in international historical research can make the picture of East-West relations more diversified and complex in terms of actors, ideas, and directions. Rather than showing the importance and singularity of the Benelux countries as ‘small states among big powers’, it stresses transnational connections and perspectives, and dismantles some important premises with regards to these countries’ position within the Cold War. In sum, this article wants to make clear that the Low Countries certainly deserve their place in Cold War historiography, not as a primus inter pares, but as an integral part of a wider transnational phenomenon with global but also often very local aspirations and dimensions.

Entering a Clerical Career at the Roman Curia, 1458–1471 ed. by Kirsi Salonen and Jussi Hanska (review)

Reviewed by: Entering a Clerical Career at the Roman Curia, 1458–1471 ed. by Kirsi Salonen and Jussi Hanska Antonella Mazzon Entering a Clerical Career at the Roman Curia, 1458–1471. Edited by Kirsi Salonen and Jussi Hanska. [Church, Faith and Culture in the Medieval West.] (Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing. 2013. Pp. xii, 295. $134.96. ISBN 978-1-4094-2839-8.) This work presents a complete investigation of the established procedure to be ordained priest and then enjoy special economic benefits during the pontificates of Pius II (1458–64) and Paul II (1464–71). Not basing their research on narrative sources that usually portray the clerical world as ignorant and inept, the authors [End Page 922] focus their attention on papal documents, produced in particular by two institutions of the Church of Rome: the Apostolic Penitentiary and the Apostolic Chamber. Thanks to in-depth analysis of the sources, it is shown that for the clerical career, the Church of Rome wished to choose men who did not have physical defects, who were reliable in terms of moral qualities, who were well educated, and who had been invested in accordance with canon law. Any exception should have been authorized specifically. The Apostolic Penitentiary is one of the offices of the Papal Curia in charge of granting absolutions and dispensations. Starting from the pontificate of Martin V, it expanded its authority more and more. In this period, referring relevant matters to the Apostolic Penitentiary suggest a desire to enhance one’s career inside the Church. Several requests from the same diocese indicate the intention by the bishop to operate in compliance with legislation and to seek papal dispensations for many of his local candidates, even if such a step was not strictly necessary. Due to the need for priests who could celebrate the sacraments, bishops were often forced to ordain men too young for that role. This is the reason why many applications concern men under age twenty-five. Dispensations for physical defects especially concerned problems with eyes and hands. There were also particular requests for “absolution from being ordained to the priesthood with a false title, or with a falsified dimissory letter” (p. 162). The authors provide case studies, as well as comprehensive and varied examples, quotations of related legislation, and thorough analyses of the data collected. Requests for dispensations came from every part of Christendom, but for de promotis et promovendis the requests came mostly from northern Italy, southern Germany, and what are present-day Benelux countries; these regions had many vacant benefices and a crucial need for priests. As the editors note: … [T]wo petitioners out of three were not yet priests and wanted to be promoted to higher orders and therefore needed a dispensation, either because of a defect or in order to be ordained against the normal ordination practice. One third of the petitioners, in their turn, had already been (in some false way) ordained to the priesthood and therefore needed an absolution and dispensation that would allow them to continue in their orders and offices. (p. 114) Although some papal representative such as legates, nuncios, and collectors could grant dispensations and thus reduce the need to turn to the Penitentiary, many religious and pilgrims arrived in Rome during the spring (especially during the Easter period), intent on fixing their “legal and religious” situation. Sometimes these candidates made the journey to Rome because they could count on a special relationship with an official of the Papal Curia, because their bishop was absent from their diocese, or because they resided outside their home diocese for reasons such as academic study. The second part of the book concerns the ordinations in the Apostolic Chamber during the pontificate of Paul II, and the archival series investigated is represented [End Page 923] by Libri formatarum. There are two categories in this source: “the people who were ordained during the six actual ordination days and those who were ordained outside these days (extra tempora jure statuta)” (p. 168). Official ordinations had to take place in a sacred space (usually a church) and had to be celebrated by one of the eight bishops approved by the Apostolic Chamber and in presence of...

A magyarországi fúziók és felvásárlások térbeli jellemzőinek vizsgálata az 1997 és 2013 közötti időszakban

A tanulmány célja a Magyarországon az 1997 és 2013 között létrejött fúziók és felvásárlások (M&A, mergers and acquisitions) térbeli jellemzőinek és összefüggéseinek a vizsgálata. Az elemzés során 730 M&A-tranzakciót vettem górcső alá, amelyhez a Gazdasági Versenyhivatal versenyjogi határozatai adtak kiindulási alapot. Vizsgáltam a magyarországi M&A-tranzakciók térbeli sajátosságai mellett az ágazati és a pénzügyi (felvásárolt részesedések) jellemzőit és a közöttük levő összefüggéseket is.A tanulmány három egységből épül fel. Az első rész a szakirodalmi áttekintés, a második részben bemutatom a vizsgálatok során alkalmazott módszertant és a kapott eredményeket, a harmadik egységben az eredmények időbeli és térbeli összehasonlítására kerül sor.A vizsgált időszakban Magyarország kedvelt célpont volt a külföldi felvásárlók körében: a felvásárlók több mint 70%-a külföldi vállalat. Európai uniós országokban van a székhelye a külföldi vállalatok több mint 80%-ának. A felvásárló társaságok átlagosan 81%-os részesedést szereztek a céltársaságokban. A statisztikai vizsgálat eredményei azt mutatják, hogy a térbeli jellemzők (a felvásárló bázisországa és a külföldi leányvállalatok regionális eloszlása) nem voltak hatással a céltársaságban megvásárolt részesedésekre. A legtöbb M&A a feldolgozóiparban, a kereskedelemben és a logisztikai szektorban történt. A feldolgozóiparban a legtöbb M&A a Benelux államokból, Németországból és Olaszországból származik. A kereskedelmi szektorban kiemelkedő Németország (30%) és Franciaország (16%) jelenléte. A felvásárlások regionális megoszlása a területi egyenlőtlenségeket tovább erősítette Magyarországon.

European Banking Union C: Cross-Border ResolutionnFortis Group

In August 2007, Fortis Group, Belgium’s largest bank, acquired the Dutch operations of ABN AMRO, becoming the fifth largest bank in Europe. Despite its size and its significant operations in the Benelux countries, Fortis struggled to integrate ABN AMRO. Fortis’s situation worsened with the crash of the US subprime market, which impacted its subprime mortgage portfolio. By July 2008, Fortis’s CEO had stepped down, its stock had lost 70% of its value, and it was on the verge of collapse due to a severe liquidity crisis. The governments of Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands quickly came together and agreed to inject funding into the bank to keep it afloat. However, the deal fell apart when the Netherlands reversed course and nationalized Fortis’s Dutch assets. As a result, Fortis underwent an uncoordinated resolution, bifurcated along national lines. This case permits examination of this attempt at a cross-border rescue of a failing systemically important financial institution, analysis of why the effort failed, and consideration of how it might proceed differently under current regulations.

Supporting the UK's Workless – An International Comparative Perspective

AbstractWithin and between nations, spatial inequalities in relation to health, labour markets and employment shape the barriers faced by those trapped on disability benefits, and thus create challenges for public policy. To provide context for such analyses and policy discussions, this article presents evidence on levels of poverty, welfare support and inequality across Europe. It compares and contrasts especially the position and support for those out of or at the margins of the labour market under different welfare states to reveal the significant differences between the UK on the one hand and the Nordic and Benelux countries on the other hand. Applying insights from theories and practices of endogenous growth, universalism and inclusion, it is demonstrated that lessons are to be learnt from the better economic and social performances of the more inclusive and coherent nations of northern Europe. In particular, it is argued that the very high levels of poverty and inequality inherent in the neo‐liberal policies of the UK cannot generate the conditions for simultaneously reducing public sector deficits and stimulating demand so that worklessness and exclusion inevitably will continue. The article concludes that an alternative social democratic paradigm is required based on solidarity, equity and fiscal responsibility to address this self‐defeating feedback.

Does legal physician-assisted dying impede development of palliative care? The Belgian and Benelux experience

BackgroundIn 2002, physician-assisted dying was legally regulated in the Netherlands and Belgium, followed in 2009 by Luxembourg. An internationally frequently expressed concern is that such legislation could stunt the development...

Editorial: Challenges, specificities and commonalities of transport research and policy within the BENELUX countries – the case of Luxembourg

The papers included in this special issue of the EJTIR evolved from discussions and presentations given at the 2013 Transport Research Day of BIVEC, the ‘Benelux Interuniversity Association of Transport Researchers’, which took place at the University of Luxembourg in May 2013. This biannual event is organized in order to foster scientific exchange on related issues and offers a platform for early career researchers, most importantly PhD candidates, to present their work and receive scientific feedback. Different from the topic-wise rationale that is usually behind most other academic associations, submissions have to come from universities or representatives of the three Benelux countries: Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg.

ГРАФІЧНИЙ АНАЛІЗ ТЕОРІЇ ЛАФФЕРА ДЛЯ КРАЇН БЕНІЛЮКСУ ПРОТЯГОМ 1995-2012 РОКІВ

Задача знаходження ставки податкового тягаря, яка генерує найбільший обсяг податкових надходжень, привертала увагу дослідників весь час. Закон дефіциту державних фінансових ресурсів по відношенню до державних витрат визначає постійний моніторинг еволюції біномінальних понять: фіскального тиску в порівнянні з податковими надходженнями. Добре відома крива Лаффера є найпростішим і практичним підходом. Мета цієї статті визначити графічне представлення цієї кривої для Бельгії, Нідерландів та Люксембургу. Дослідження засноване на даних, наданих Європейською комісією протягом 18 років. Висновки для країн Бенілюксу посилаються на те, що оптимальне значення податкового тягаря дуже близьке до максимального податкового тягаря, що використовується ними (відмінності менше 1 відсотка), для Бельгії навіть дорівнює. Крім того, Люксембург і Бельгія розташовані в допустимій області цієї теорії, в той час як Нідерланди мають коливну позицію.

Predicting the risk of introduction and establishment of an exotic aquarium animal in Europe: insights from one decade of Marmorkrebs (Crustacea, Astacida, Cambaridae) releases

The presence of the North American Marmorkrebs (Procambarus fallax f. virginalis) in European inland waters is entirely driven by ongoing propagule pressure from the ornamental trade. Since 2003 at least 25 independent introduction events have been confirmed, of which some have eventually resulted in established populations. This study links a maximum-entropy model that forecasts the probability of Marmorkrebs introduction based on socio-economic predictors to an updated species distribution model based on environmental predictors in order to explore the risk of further Marmorkrebs establishment in Europe. In line with related research, the probability of Marmorkrebs release was largely affected by gross domestic product and human population density, i.e. predictors very likely related to the density of Marmorkrebs owners, whereas environmental suitability was mostly influenced by minimum temperature and the availability of lentic habitats, which was indirectly assessed by terrain slope. While considerable parts of Europe were predicted as potentially suitable for establishment, high probabilities of introduction were forecasted in much smaller geographic areas. The consensus map of the model predictions suggests that introduction and subsequent establishment of Marmorkrebs is likely to occur in much of Germany, the Benelux countries, England, Italy, and areas of high human population density throughout France and Spain, as well as parts of southernmost Scandinavia and Southeastern Europe. Monitoring trades of Marmorkrebs in these high-risk regions is recommended and implications for proactive measures are discussed, including the need for consistent trade regulations at the EU level.

Autonomy – A leading principle in the end-of-life decision making?

Objective: The objective of this paper is to introduce some of the most specific legal regulations on informed consent and patient’s will and to show the limits of the recognition of patient’s autonomy, especially as the end-of-life issues are regarded. Autonomy of a competent patient is often presented as an overwhelming argument in the end-of-life debate, regardless whether in the context of life termination on request or in the decision making about withdrawal or withholding of the treatment. Despite of the general opinion, that decriminalization of life termination on request is legitimately based on the respect for the patient’s wishes to die, even in the world most liberal end-of-life law of Benelux countries the legal concept seems to be built in a considerably different and more sophisticated way, as it does not solely rely on the request of the patient to be administered the lethal dose. Basically, the will of a competent patient to be let die is to be understood as a reason for the doctors to omit the further medical treatment, even if this omission leads to death of the patient. To the contrary, no actively caused death, as well as actively caused grievous injuries which are not a result of an acknowledged proper treatment, can be pleaded lawful with the reference to the consent of the patient. With this paper, the extent of exercising patient’s autonomy concerning the specific law on euthanasia in some European countries was examined to show on these examples the perhaps too overestimated factual impact of the autonomy principle in the medical law. Methods: Whilst comparing the most liberal legal systems in the world (among others the Swiss and Dutch ones) in which either life termination on request and/or assisted suicide was conditionally decriminalised, a critical analysis was performed to show to what extent and under which circumstances represents the will of a competent patient a defence to a doctor who provided the patient with life termination on request or assisted suicide or let the patient die. Results: According to the analysis, in no legal jurisdiction in the world the will (incl. consent and request) of the patient as such can serve as a full defence; for decriminalisation of the life termination on request or assisted suicide the fulfilment of other criteria must be reached. Conclusions: Although the will of the patient can with no doubt be understood as a conditio sine qua non for decriminalisation of life termination on request and/or assisted suicide, without being accomplished with other legal requirements it cannot be pleaded as full defence. Therefore, as the area of end-of-life decision making is concerned, the primacy of principle of autonomy should not be automatically taken for granted.

INTEGRATION OF THE BALTIC REGION STATES: DRIVING FORCES AND OBSTACLES

Few macro regions related with closer economic, political or cultural contacts exist in Europe. One of these regions is Baltic Sea Region. After Iron Cordon collapsed states surrounding the Baltic Sea had received the possibility to rebuild relationships which existed for few centuries. Factors contributing to strengthening these relationships (deeper integration of region’s states) and impeding closeness of these states exist. The problem which factors contribute to multidimensional economic, political and social integration of Baltic Sea Region and which impede this process is being solved in this article. First part of the article emphasizes that most important factors for deepening integration of Baltic Sea Region in present development stage are those which can be generally called endeavor of European Union and region states’ governments and societies to seek closer collaboration. Outcome of this endeavor – more than 30 international institutions, treaties, initiatives and programs pointed at formation of Baltic Sea Region community. Due to limited extent the impact of only three integration means is discussed in the article: 1) Internal market of European Community, 2) European Union strategy for Baltic Sea Region, and 3) Council of the Baltic Sea States. It is indicated that in terms of integration theory the impact of the first mean is referable to classic, the second one – to differential and the third one – to alternative integration. The latter two terms displace unattractively sounding multi-speed or concentric circles integration concepts. The second part of the article is addressed to large differences of Baltic Sea Region states’ development. It is stated that development of West-North and East-South states of this region is based on different factors. Moreover large gap between development factors of these states exist and is to remain in the future. It is concluded that despite the developed and effective coordination mechanism of actions and politics differences of development trends at least in near future won’t let region’s states to achieve deeper integration level which exist, for example, between Benelux countries. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5755/j01.eis.0.7.5021

Corruption, inequalities and the perceived effectiveness of economic pro-environmental policy instruments: A European cross-national study

The aim of this article is to explain cross-national differences in perceptions regarding the effectiveness of economic pro-environmental policy instruments (EIs). Using data for the European Union, it is found that people in the Nordic and the Benelux countries are more likely to perceive EIs as effective instruments while people in southern and eastern Europe are less inclined to do so. Two hypotheses are put forth to explain these differences. First, it is hypothesized that people are less likely to perceive EIs to be effective pro-environmental policy instruments in relatively corrupt countries. Corrupt public institutions waste economic resources and are less efficient. Furthermore, corrupt societies tend to have lower levels of trust, in general, and low compliance with public policy, which also affects the perceived effectiveness of EIs. The second hypothesis is that people are less likely to perceive EIs as an effective policy option in relatively unequal societies because some income groups will not be as affected by such instruments. Furthermore, EIs have been argued to have unfair distributional effects, and unfairness is argued to trigger free-riding tendencies, thus, making instruments ineffective. From a logistic multilevel regression analysis, the results show support for both hypotheses. In relatively more corrupt and economically unequal countries, EIs are considered less effective, possibly affecting the potential for EIs in certain contexts.

The prevalence and correlates of sitting in European adults - a comparison of 32 Eurobarometer-participating countries

BackgroundProlonged sitting is an emerging health risk. However, multi-country comparative sitting data are sparse. This paper reports the prevalence and correlates of sitting time in 32 European countries.MethodsData from the Eurobarometer 64.3 study were used, which included nationally representative samples (n = 304-1,102) from 32 European countries. Face-to-face interviews were conducted during November and December 2005. Usual weekday sitting time was assessed using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (short-version). Sitting time was compared by country, age, gender, years of education, general health status, usual activity and physical activity. Multivariable-adjusted analyses assessed the odds of belonging to the highest sitting quartile.ResultsData were available for 27,637 adults aged 15–98 years. Overall, mean reported weekday sitting time was 309 min/day (SD 184 min/day). There was a broad geographical pattern and some of the lowest amounts of daily sitting were reported in southern (Malta and Portugal means 194–236 min/day) and eastern (Romania and Hungary means 191–276 min/day) European countries; and some of the highest amounts of daily sitting were reported in northern European countries (Germany, Benelux and Scandinavian countries; means 407–335 min/day). Multivariable-adjusted analyses showed adults with low physical activity levels (OR = 5.10, CI95 = 4.60-5.66), those with high sitting in their main daily activity (OR = 2.99, CI95 = 2.74-3.25), those with a bad/very bad general health state (OR = 1.87, CI95 = 1.63-2.15) and higher education levels (OR = 1.48, CI95 = 1.38-1.59) were more likely to be in the highest quartile of daily sitting time. Adults within Greece (OR = 2.91, CI95 = 2.51-3.36) and Netherlands (OR = 2.56, CI95 = 2.22-2.94) were most likely to be in the highest quartile. High-sit/low-active participants comprised 10.1% of the sample. Adults self-reporting bad/very bad general health state (OR = 4.74, CI95 = 3.97-5.65), those within high sitting in their main daily activities (OR = 2.87, CI95 = 2.52-3.26) and adults aged ≥65 years (OR = 1.53, CI95 = 1.19-1.96) and were more likely to be in the high-sit/low-active group.ConclusionsWeekday sitting time and its demographic correlates varied considerably across European countries, with adults in north-western European countries sitting the most. Sitting is prevalent across Europe and merits attention by preventive interventions.

ON VARIETY OF INTEGRATION PROCESSES IN EUROPE

On the basis of analysis of integration processes between Nordic, Benelux countries and post-soviet states in Europe the author expresses hesitations in accepting the integration experiences gained by the EU as the criterion of efficiency and the pattern for the post-Soviet space. He does not consider that an involvement of all countries with market economy into processes of regional integration, if they do not try to achieve certain political aims through integration, is the universal regularity in the globalized world. In these cases neither free trade zones nor custom unions can be considered as integration stages, but they continue to be the tools for further development of trade. The author proposes to assess the EU evolution with regard to the legal norms of international organizations, where state sovereignty of members is strengthened, not given up to supernational bodies. In case the idea of reestablishment of an unified state on the remains of the former USSR, linked to the necessity to hand over the recently acquired sovereignty to it, is laid down to the ground for practical measures of integration, this kind of integration will hardly be attractive to the potential post-Soviet participants. This perspective is hardly desired for Russia either. The integration path of the EU reflects the peculiarities of the European situation and specific interests of its member states. Many details of the EU activity are not applicable to other integration groupings in Europe and membership criteria in every of them is not universal. Any efforts to construct integration processes in the post-Soviet space in accordance to the EU model without proper consideration to integration experiences of other countries and to political, economic, social, cultural, demographic, military peculiarities of the countries concerned seem to be not acceptable and founded.