Benefits Of Fish Consumption Research Articles

Risks and Benefits of Consumption of Great Lakes Fish

Background: Beneficial effects of fish consumption on early cognitive development and cardiovascular health have been attributed to the omega-3 fatty acids in fish and fish oils, but toxic chemicals in fish may adversely affect these health outcomes. Risk–benefit assessments of fish consumption have frequently focused on methylmercury and omega-3 fatty acids, not persistent pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls, and none have evaluated Great Lakes fish consumption.Objectives: The risks and benefits of fish consumption have been established primarily for marine fish. Here, we examine whether sufficient data are available to evaluate the risks and benefits of eating freshwater fish from the Great Lakes.Methods: We used a scoping review to integrate information from multiple state, provincial, and federal agency sources regarding the contaminants and omega-3 fatty acids in Great Lakes fish and fish consumers, consumption rates and fish consumption advisories, and health effects of contaminants and omega-3 fatty acids.Data synthesis: Great Lakes fish contain persistent contaminants—many of which have documented adverse health effects —that accumulate in humans consuming them. In contrast, data are sparse on omega-3 fatty acids in the fish and their consumers. Moreover, few studies have documented the social and cultural benefits of Great Lakes fish consumption, particularly for subsistence fishers and native communities. At this time, federal and state/provincial governments provide fish consumption advisories based solely on risk.Conclusions: Our knowledge of Great Lakes fish has critical gaps, particularly regarding the benefits of consumption. A risk–benefit analysis requires more information than is currently available on the concentration of omega-3 fatty acids in Great Lakes fish and their absorption by fish eaters in addition to more information on the social, cultural, and health consequences of changes in the amount of fish consumed.

The dilemma of healthy eating and environmental sustainability: the case of fish

Despite widespread concern over exploitation of the European Union's fish stocks, dietary guidelines in the UK continue to recommend two portions of fish per week. The present study sought to investigate whether health and/or sustainability are motivating factors when purchasing and consuming fish and whether there are sociodemographic trends. A structured, self-completion postal questionnaire exploring consumers' attitudes towards purchasing fish, their dietary intake, stated purchasing behaviour and sociodemographic information. Nottinghamshire, UK. Adults from 842 households randomly selected from the electoral register. Over half of the participants (57·0 %) were aware of the health benefits of fish consumption and reported health as a primary motivator for purchasing fish; however, only 26·8 % actively sought to purchase fish from a sustainable source (e.g. Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) certified fish). Only 30·6 % of participants met current dietary recommendations for fish intake. Older respondents (>60 years of age) were more likely to report purchasing fish for health reasons and to buy MSC fish. Participants were significantly less likely to report MSC purchases if they agreed with the statement 'I am confused about which type of fish I should be eating to protect fish stocks' (P < 0·001). The number of consumers purchasing fish for health reasons was more than those seeking sustainably sourced fish; yet, they still failed to meet the recommended intake set by the Food Standards Agency. Dietary advice to the public to increase consumption of fish conflicts with the prevailing pressure on fish stocks. Clear advice should be communicated enabling consumers to meet nutritional needs while protecting fish stocks.

The benefits of fish consumption

Summary In 2004, The UK government advice stated that consumers should increase fish consumption to two portions a week, one of which should be oil-rich fish. However, survey data show that this advice has not been acted upon by most members of the public. In addition, limited data on consumer attitudes highlight barriers to increased fish consumption, such as concerns about buying and cooking fish, perceptions that fish is expensive, and worries that fish meals may not be eaten by all family members. The ‘two-a-week’ message is underpinned by strong scientific evidence for heart health, while weaker emerging evidence associates certain nutrients found in fish with a lower risk of immune dysfunction, normal brain development in infants, insulin sensitivity and maintenance of cognitive function in later life. Clearly, further refinement of the two-a-week message is needed to ensure that greater numbers of people respond. Ideas include determining appropriate portion sizes for babies and children, increasing awareness of the broad range of fish and shellfish species, highlighting sustainable sources of fish, and reassuring consumers that frozen and prepared fish products count towards the two-a-week target. Further work is also needed to address barriers to consumption, particularly among teenagers and younger adults, who have the lowest intakes.

Differential effects of various fish proteins in altering body weight, adiposity, inflammatory status, and insulin sensitivity in high-fat–fed rats

Mounting evidence suggests that the benefits of fish consumption are not limited to the well-appreciated effects of omega-3 fatty acids. We previously demonstrated that cod protein protects against the development of diet-induced insulin resistance. The goal of this study was to determine whether other fish protein sources present similar beneficial effects. Rats were fed a high-fat, high-sucrose diet containing protein from casein or fish proteins from bonito, herring, mackerel, or salmon. After 28 days, oral glucose tolerance tests or hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamps were performed; and tissues and plasma were harvested for biochemical analyses. Despite equal energy intake among all groups, the salmon-protein–fed group presented significantly lower weight gain that was associated with reduced fat accrual in epididymal white adipose tissue. Although this reduction in visceral adiposity was not associated with improved glucose tolerance, we found that whole-body insulin sensitivity for glucose metabolism was improved using the very sensitive hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp technique. Importantly, expression of both tumor necrosis factor–α and interleukin-6 was reduced in visceral adipose tissue of all fish-protein–fed groups when compared with the casein-fed control group, suggesting that fish proteins carry anti-inflammatory properties that may protect against obesity-linked metabolic complications. Interestingly, consumption of the salmon protein diet was also found to raise circulating salmon calcitonin levels, which may underlie the reduction of weight gain in these rats. These data suggest that not all fish protein sources exert the same beneficial properties on the metabolic syndrome, although anti-inflammatory actions appear to be common.

Biochemical factors modulating cellular neurotoxicity of methylmercury.

Methylmercury (MeHg), an environmental toxicant primarily found in fish and seafood, poses a dilemma to both consumers and regulatory authorities, given the nutritional benefits of fish consumption versus the possible adverse neurological damage. Several studies have shown that MeHg toxicity is influenced by a number of biochemical factors, such as glutathione (GSH), fatty acids, vitamins, and essential elements, but the cellular mechanisms underlying these complex interactions have not yet been fully elucidated. The objective of this paper is to outline the cellular response to dietary nutrients, as well as to describe the neurotoxic exposures to MeHg. In order to determine the cellular mechanism(s) of toxicity, the effect of pretreatment with biochemical factors (e.g., N-acetyl cysteine, (NAC); diethyl maleate, (DEM); docosahexaenoic acid, (DHA); selenomethionine, SeM; Trolox) and MeHg treatment on intercellular antioxidant status, MeHg content, and other endpoints was evaluated. This paper emphasizes that the protection against oxidative stress offered by these biochemical factors is among one of the major mechanisms responsible for conferring neuroprotection. It is therefore critical to ascertain the cellular mechanisms associated with various dietary nutrients as well as to determine the potential effects of neurotoxic exposures for accurately assessing the risks and benefits associated with fish consumption.

A Balanced Diet?: Selenium May Offset the Effects of Methylmercury on Cataract Development

Dietary exposure to mercury from fish has been posited as a risk factor for cataracts because some reports have suggested methylmercury accumulates in the lens of the eye. But selenium from other dietary sources may offset that damage, according to a study of communities in the Amazon basin [EHP 118(11):1584–1589; Lemire et al.]. The findings, while preliminary, hint at potential public health measures in areas where methylmercury-contaminated fish are a significant part of people’s diets. With old age comes cataracts, particularly in latitudes like the Amazon, where higher ultraviolet radiation exposure and other environmental factors contribute to the clouding of the lenses in human eyes. And while surgical fixes exist for cataracts, people in isolated regions may not always have access to those options. Cataracts therefore are a major cause of blindness among older people in the Amazon. The current study involved communities that eat fish from the Tapajos River, a tributary of the Amazon. People here have among the highest reported exposures to mercury in the world. Deforestation in the region leads to the release of natural inorganic mercury from soils into surface waters, where it is methylated and eventually ends up in fish. Several hundred people voluntarily participated in the study, which entailed taking an overnight boat trip to a nearby city where participants gave blood samples and were examined by optometrists. In the end, 211 people over age 40 were included in the analysis. A third of them had age-related cataracts. Low plasma selenium and high blood mercury each were associated with a higher prevalence of cataracts (over 2 and 4 times higher, respectively). The team calculated that the people with both low plasma selenium and high blood mercury were 16 times more likely to develop cataracts than the “optimum situation” group, which had both high plasma selenium and low blood mercury. This is the first study known to associate high levels of methylmercury from fish consumption with increased occurrence of cataracts. The authors emphasize that other factors—such as differences in dietary intakes of antioxidants and vitamins—could confound their findings. Still, if the observed associations hold true in broader studies, public health interventions to alleviate cataracts in this Amazonian population must consider both the health benefits of fish consumption and the risks of the main source of dietary selenium in the region: brazil nuts, which also contain barium and strontium, heavy metals with their own hazards.

Varying coefficient function models to explore interactions between maternal nutritional status and prenatal methylmercury toxicity in the Seychelles Child Development Nutrition Study

Maternal consumption of fish during the gestational period exposes the fetus to both nutrients, especially the long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs), believed to be beneficial for fetal brain development, as well as to the neurotoxicant methylmercury (MeHg). We recently reported that nutrients present in fish may modify MeHg neurotoxicity. Understanding the apparent interaction of MeHg exposure and nutrients present in fish is complicated by the limitations of modeling methods. In this study we fit varying coefficient function models to data from the Seychelles Child Development Nutrition Study (SCDNS) cohort to assess the association of dietary nutrients and children’s development. This cohort of mother–child pairs in the Republic of Seychelles had fish consumption averaging 9 meals per week. Maternal nutritional status was assessed for five different nutritional components known to be present in fish (n-3 LCPUFA, n-6 LCPUFA, iron status, iodine status, and choline) and associated with children’s neurological development. We also included prenatal MeHg exposure (measured in maternal hair). We examined two child neurodevelopmental outcomes (Bayley Scales Infant Development-II (BSID-II) Mental Developmental Index (MDI) and Psychomotor Developmental Index (PDI)), each administered at 9 and at 30 months. The varying coefficient models allow the possible interactions between each nutritional component and MeHg to be modeled as a smoothly varying function of MeHg as an effect modifier. Iron, iodine, choline, and n-6 LCPUFA had little or no observable modulation at different MeHg exposures. In contrast the n-3 LCPUFA docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) had beneficial effects on the BSID-II PDI that were reduced or absent at higher MeHg exposures. This study presents a useful modeling method that can be brought to bear on questions involving interactions between covariates, and illustrates the continuing importance of viewing fish consumption during pregnancy as a case of multiple exposures to nutrients and to MeHg. The results encourage more emphasis on a holistic view of the risks and benefits of fish consumption as it relates to infant development.

Omega-3 Fatty Acids, Mercury, and Selenium in Fish and the Risk of Cardiovascular Diseases

Fish consumption is associated with lower risk of cardiovascular disease. Some fish species also contain methylmercury, which may increase cardiovascular risk, as well as selenium, a trace element that could counter the effects of methylmercury or have beneficial effects itself. These potentially conflicting effects have created public confusion about the risks and benefits of fish consumption in adults. We examined the evidence for cardiovascular effects of fish consumption, particularly effects of marine omega-3 fatty acids, methylmercury, and selenium. Compelling evidence indicates that modest fish consumption substantially reduces cardiovascular risk, in particular cardiac mortality, related at least partly to benefits of omega-3 fatty acids. In contrast, observational studies and (for selenium) clinical trials demonstrate mixed and inconclusive results for cardiovascular effects of methylmercury and selenium. Net health benefits of overall fish consumption in adults are clear. Quantitative risk-benefit analyses of cardiovascular effects of consuming specific fish species, based on joint contents of fatty acids, methylmercury, and selenium, cannot currently be performed until the cardiovascular effects of methylmercury and selenium are established.

The in vitro effects of Trolox on methylmercury-induced neurotoxicity

Methylmercury (MeHg), an environmental toxicant primarily found in fish and seafood poses a dilemma to both consumers and regulatory authorities given the nutritional benefits of fish consumption vs. possible adverse neurological damage caused by MeHg. The present study addresses whether supplementation with 6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchromane-2-carboxylic acid (Trolox), alters the neuro-oxidative effects of MeHg in C6-glioma and B35-neuronal cell lines. As indicators of cytotoxicity, reduced glutathione (GSH), reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitochondrial activity (MTT) were measured. The cellular mercury (Hg) content was measured with high resolution-inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (HR-ICPMS). The amount of MeHg-induced ROS was significantly reduced ( p < 0.05) after treatment with 50 μM Trolox in C6 glial cell line. However, treatment with Trolox did not induce any significant increase in GSH levels or MTT activity in either of the cell lines. In addition, treatment with Trolox did not induce any significant changes in intracellular MeHg levels. The MeHg and Trolox treated C6 glial cell line differed significantly ( p < 0.05) from the B35 cell line for MTT, ROS and GSH activity. These findings provide experimental evidence that preincubation with Trolox prevents MeHg-induced ROS generation in C6 glial cell line by quenching of free radicals and not by changes in intracellular GSH or MeHg content.

Relationship between methylmercury and DHA in pregnant women and fetuses: The risks and benefits of fish consumption

Relationship between methylmercury and DHA in pregnant women and fetuses: The risks and benefits of fish consumption

Risks and Benefits of Fish Consumption For Childbearing Women

Pregnant women's fish consumption provides both benefits and risks to the developing fetus. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) from fish may enhance fetal neurodevelopment, while methylmercury (MeHg) can have detrimental effects. Dietitians would benefit from information on the frequency with which fish species may be consumed to increase DHA intake among Canadian women of childbearing age, and on minimizing the risks from MeHg, especially for those who consume fish frequently. Eighteen fish species were selected for DHA and mercury analysis from retail markets in the Toronto area. Consumption scenarios using analytical results for these fish species indicate that women of childbearing age can consume nine of 18 fish species every day (14 servings a week) or often (up to four servings a week) and remain below toxicological benchmarks for mercury. Moreover, women can also attain the recommended DHA level by consuming six of those nine fish: four 75-g servings of smelt, porgie, or bluefish a week, or two 75-g servings of milkfish, silver pomfret, or tilapia a day. Our analysis indicates that the DHA level recommended for childbearing women can be attained through fish consumption alone, without the need for supplementation and without posing a risk to the woman (or the fetus) from mercury.

Role of omega-3 fatty acids in maternal, fetal, infant and child wellbeing

Many pregnant women avoid dietary fish, the premier source of omega-3 fats, owing to fear of industrial contaminants. This concern, combined with a Western diet relatively deficient in omega-3 fatty acids, has created an imbalance of omega-3 compared with omega-6 fats. This imbalance may lead to a proinflammatory state that contributes to a number of complications, including preterm birth, pregnancy-induced hypertension and postpartum depression. Fetal deficiency of omega-3 fats may place infants at risk for allergic disease and suboptimum neuropsychiatric development. Although a number of studies of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation are suggestive of benefit, other studies have not shown a benefit. More research is needed to elucidate the risks and benefits of fish consumption and dietary omega-3 supplementation in pregnancy.

Benefits versus Risks Associated with Consumption of Fish and other Seafood

Fish provide nutrition for much of the world's population, and when not contaminated with chemicals, fish is a very good food. A major benefit of fish is that they are high in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), low in saturated fat, and they contain other critical nutrients. Much of the benefit of fish consumption derives from their high levels of long chain omega-3 PUFAs, which are produced by aquatic microorganisms and bioconcentrate in the aquatic food supply. The PUFAs are essential, in that humans and other vertebrates are not able to synthesize them and therefore must obtain them from the diet. The PUFAs particularly concentrate in the nervous system, alter immune system function reduce serum triglyceride levels and have been reported to reduce the risk of sudden death after a myocardial infarction. But the problem is that most fish have at least some degree of chemical contamination with methylmercury, (which binds to muscle) and/or with persistent organic pollutants such as dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, chlorinated pesticides (which concentrate in fish fat). These chemicals have adverse effects on nervous system function, modulate the immune system, and are associated with elevations in risk of cardiovascular disease. Thus the question of benefits and risk from fish consumption is complex but very important.

Communicating Methylmercury Risks and Fish Consumption Benefits to Vulnerable Childbearing Populations

Methylmercury is a known neurotoxin especially harmful to the fetus, infant, and child. Preventing exposure to this environmental toxin is best accomplished through consumer messages specifically adapted for local populations. Health care providers play an important role in the dissemination of information. The purpose of this article is to review the benefits and risks of fish consumption and identify strategies for presenting effective risk communication messages to vulnerable groups, particularly women of childbearing age.

Carcinogenic risk as the basis for fish advisories: A critique

Fish advisories are important tools in public health practice and are primarily used to translate fish contaminant levels into consumption recommendations for consumers. Even when a targeted advisory is issued, it may alter broad food consumption patterns among the public, including diminishing intake of fish-based protein and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Such alterations may have both positive (e.g., reduced exposure to contaminants) and negative (e.g., loss of health benefits or cultural traditions associated with consuming fish) consequences. Currently, a fish advisory may be based on the potential for either noncarcinogenic or carcinogenic endpoints. Consumption recommendations based on a cancer outcome are likely to be highly restrictive, potentially diminishing opportunities for the recognized health benefits associated with a fish-rich diet. This possibility causes us to raise 3 arguments against using cancer risk as the basis for fish consumption advisories. First, the benefits of fish consumption are widely recognized. Second, the standard methodology to predict cancer risk is likely to overestimate actual risk, often by orders of magnitude. Third, the public's real and perceived concerns about cancer may result in unintended consequences, such as avoidance of fish altogether. As an alternative to cancer-based advisories, we suggest that future advisories incorporate a multidisciplinary public health framework focused on avoiding noncarcinogenic health outcomes and encouraging the public to consume a balanced diet rich in fish. We also suggest that decision makers need to 1) understand which elements of the advisory process are science and which are implicit or default policy, 2) consciously consider whether these policy elements are appropriate for their particular situation, and 3) if not, be willing to make and defend alternative policy choices.

Fish Consumption in Relation to Different Dietary Characteristics

ISEE-0091 Background and Objective: It has been suggested that at least a part of the health benefits of fish consumption could be explained by a generally healthy dietary pattern. Our aim was to study fish consumption in relation to food consumption and nutrient intake, i.e., diet as a whole. Methods: The study population consisted of 114 professional fishermen and 115 fishermen's wives (the Fishermen study), and 580 males and 715 females of the nationally representative Health 2000 Health Examination Survey (the Health 2000 sub-study). Dietary data were collected using a validated food-frequency questionnaire on whole diet. Spearman correlation coefficients and means by fish consumption tertiles with P-values for linear trend were calculated. Age and energy intake were adjusted for in the analyses. Results: Fish consumption was 85% higher among the fishermen than among the Health 2000 sub-study men, and 45% higher among the fishermen's wives than among the Health 2000 sub-study women. Fish consumption associated positively with vegetable consumption, and negatively with milk, red meat (except for the Health 2000 sub-study men), and sugar, confectionary, and chocolate consumption. Among the men, fish consumption associated positively with alcohol consumption. Further, fish consumption associated positively with oil and poultry consumption among the Health 2000 sub-study participants. With regard to nutrients, fish consumption associated positively with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid, vitamin D, vitamin B12, sodium, and selenium intake, and negatively associated with sugar intake. In all the other groups except for the fishermen, fish consumption associated positively also with vitamin A, E, and K, niacin, pyridoxine, folate, phosphorus, and iodine intake. Conclusion: High fish consumption seemed to be associated with a generally healthy diet. Dietary pattern among fish consumers should be taken into account in the future studies on the health effects of fish and fish-derived environmental contaminants.

Hair mercury concentration and fish consumption: Risk and perceptions of risk among women of childbearing age

The purposes of this study were to assess the hair mercury concentration of women of childbearing age in Taiwan, and to calculate a hazard quotient (HQ) to evaluate the risk of fish consumption for these women. We also examined perceptions of risk associated with fish consumption and whether women in our study changed their habits in response to such risks. The average concentration of mercury was 1.73+/-2.12microgg(-1) (range: 0.02-16.34microgg(-1)), exceeding the US EPA reference dose of 1microgg(-1) in 52.9% of study subjects. The WHO tolerance limit of 10microgg(-1) was exceeded in 1.5% of study subjects. Hair mercury concentration in groups who consumed fish was significantly higher than in groups who never consumed fish (p<0.05). The hazard quotient (exposure estimate/oral reference dose) exceeded 1.0 for 29% of subjects, based on the US EPA's reference dose (0.1microgkg(-1)d(-1)), and the average HQ equaled 1.26. When told that some fish contain high levels of mercury that may be harmful for unborn babies, 67.6% of women still indicated that they would not change their amount of fish intake. The high hair mercury concentrations among women of childbearing age in Taiwan are a cause for concern, due to the effect on babies' brain development. The government should provide specific information about risks and benefits of fish consumption for women to make risk-balancing decisions.

Think Big, Eat Small

B. Worm et al. (“Rebuilding Global Fisheries,” Research Articles, 31 July, p. [578][1]) reported cases in which effective fisheries management was based on catch restriction, gear modification, and closed areas. Consumers can also play a role in the future of fisheries. The demand for fish continues to increase yearly—is it possible to maintain the benefits of fish consumption while minimizing the risks to both human health and global fisheries? ![Figure][2] Sardines. Small pelagic fish such as sardines contain more nutrients and fewer contaminants than larger types of fish. CREDIT: [ISTOCKPHOTOS.COM][3] Harvesting from higher trophic levels in the marine food chain eventually leads us to make nutritionally and ecologically incompetent choices. We are eating the wrong kinds of fish and too many of them. There is good indication that some of the smaller fish species have more to offer to human health with less risk than larger fish closer to the top of the food chain. There are several reasons for this. Fish at the top of the food chain can become significant repositories for a range of contaminants both natural and anthropogenic and may also have low concentrations of key nutrients. The flesh of most large predator fish from warm water fisheries (big tuna, swordfish, marlin, shark) usually is low in omega-3 fatty acids and high in mercury/selenium ratios ([ 1 ][4]). Small pelagic fish, such as sardines, herrings, anchovies, and mackerel, however, have not been subject to the same overfishing pressure that has befallen almost all of the larger fish species. They not only provide higher levels of beneficial nutrients but are also significantly lower in contaminants ubiquitous to the marine food chain. They are also very affordable. Consumers' choices are more and more influenced by health and environmental considerations. That could make a difference. 1. [↵][5]1. E. Dewailly 2. et al ., Food Add. Contam. 25, 1328 (2008). [OpenUrl][6][CrossRef][7] [1]: /lookup/doi/10.1126/science.1173146 [2]: pending:yes [3]: http://ISTOCKPHOTOS.COM [4]: #ref-1 [5]: #xref-ref-1-1 View reference 1 in text [6]: {openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DFood%2BAdd.%2BContam.%26rft.volume%253D25%26rft.spage%253D1328%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1080%252F02652030802175285%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx [7]: /lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1080/02652030802175285&link_type=DOI

Use of advanced cluster analysis to characterize fish consumption patterns and methylmercury dietary exposures from fish and other sea foods among pregnant women

On account of the interspecies variability in contamination and nutrient contents, consumers must balance the risks and benefits of fish consumption through their choice of species, meal size and frequency. The objectives of this study were to better characterize the risk of methylmercury (MeHg) exposure in a sample of 161 French pregnant women consuming sea food, including fish, molluscs and crustaceans, and to explore the use of unsupervised statistical learning as an advanced type of cluster analysis to identify patterns of fish consumption that could predict exposure to MeHg and the coverage of the Recommended Daily Allowance for n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA). The proportion of about 5% of pregnant women exposed at levels higher than the tolerable weekly intake for MeHg is similar to that observed among women of childbearing age in earlier French studies. At the same time, only about 50% of the women reached the recommended intake of 500 mg/day n-3 PUFA. Cluster analysis of the fish consumption showed that they could be grouped in five major clusters that are largely predictable of the intake of both MeHg and n-3 PUFA. This study shows that a global increase in seafood consumption could lead to MeHg exposure above the toxicological limits for pregnant women, thereby questioning the overall balance between this potential risk and potential beneficial effects of n-3 PUFA intakes. Only pregnant women consuming a high proportion of fatty fish meet the n-3 PUFA intake requirements without exceeding the toxicological limit for MeHg. The clusters identified suggest that different intervention strategies may be needed to address the dual purpose of ensuring high PUFA intakes at acceptable MeHg exposures.

Perceptions of the risks and benefits of fish consumption: Individual choices to reduce risk and increase health benefits

Studies of fish consumption often focus on awareness of and adherence to advisories, how much fish people eat, and contaminant levels in those fish. This paper examines knowledge and accuracy of risks and benefits of fish consumption among fishers and other recreationists in the New York Bight, indicative of whether they could make sound dietary decisions. While most respondents knew about health risks (70%) and benefits (94%) of consuming fish, far fewer could name specific risks and benefits. Less than 25% of respondents mentioned mercury and less than 15% mentioned that pregnant women and children were at risk. Far fewer people mentioned polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Nearly 70% said it was healthy to eat fish, and 45% were aware that fish were rich in healthful oils. Despite the lack of details about what specific risks and benefits of fish, well over a third did not feel they needed more information. Other respondents had basic questions, but did not pose specific questions about the fish they caught or ate that would have clarified their individual risk-balancing decisions. Knowledge of which fish were high in contaminants did not match the mercury or PCB levels in those fish. There was a disconnect between the information base about specific risks and benefits of fish consumption, levels of mercury and PCBs in fish, and the respondent's desire for more information. These data indicate that respondents did not have enough accurate information about contaminants in fish to make informed risk-balancing decisions.