Belt And Road Initiative Countries Research Articles

Decoupling with(out) outsourcing? Quantifying emissions embodied in BRI trade with implications for climate policy

We empirically examine the trade-related environmental impacts of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) using a novel technology-adjusted consumption-based accounting in addition to traditional accounting schemes and data from the Eora Global database from 1995 to 2015. We find that BRI trade accounted for 3-quarters (5.01 Gt) of global traded emissions in 2015. BRI countries account for 60%–75% of (non-BRI) developed-world consumption-based emissions. While developing (BRI) countries import 8%–42% of their consumption needs from China, they account for half of the China’s imported emissions. Our analysis reveals that technological adjustments in export sectors significantly alter the magnitude of outsourcing and emission responsibility assigned to both BRI and non-BRI countries. This leads to a notable shift in net trade balance emissions. We find that developed (BRI and non-BRI) countries have reduced emissions primarily through decoupling and outsourcing. Our findings demonstrate that BRI trade has diverse environmental effects; exports from more carbon-efficient (BRI and non-BRI) developed countries are likely to reduce (or avoid) emissions in developing (BRI) countries and vice versa. An important implication of these findings is that China’s BRI-led outsourcing and investments have the potential to yield significant environmental benefits by accelerating the transition to renewable energy in developing countries participating in the initiative.

Sustainable Development: Impact of FDI and Corruption Mitigation Within BRI Nations

This study examines the effects of foreign direct investment (FDI), corruption mitigation, stock market, e-commerce and energy consumption on environmental quality in 54 countries along the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) from 1996 to 2016. Using various econometric techniques, the study finds that anti-corruption efforts and financial development have positive impacts on environmental quality, while economic growth, FDI and urbanization have negative impacts. This study also reveals that FDI and corruption control have a significant interaction effect on CO2 emissions. This study provides important insights and policy implications for achieving sustainable development in BRI countries.

Unlocking Sustainable Futures: Exploring Multidimensional Poverty in Belt & Road Initiative Countries Through Forest Plantation Perspectives

ABSTRACT Forest plantation initiatives hold significant prospects to impact various dimensions of poverty, highlighting the crucial need to understand this link in the context of sustainable development. In the 1990s, countries participating in the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) witnessed a notable progress in forest plantations. While earlier research primarily focused on assessing the effects of these plantations on specific facets of rural poverty, this study aims to delve into the broader macroeconomic implications of forest plantations on the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI). From 2010 to 2020, the study used the Fully Modified Ordinary Least Square (FMOLS) and Driscoll-Kraay estimators to scrutinize the influence of forest plantations on the MPI. The research findings unveil a significant negative effect of various factors, including the rule of law (RL), agricultural expansion (AGR), and forest plantation (FP), on the MPI in BRI countries. Interestingly, political stability and the control of corruption exhibit a positive effect on the MPI. Furthermore, causality tests indicate a unidirectional link between MPI and political stability and a one-way connection between forest plantations and MPI. Suggestions for BRI countries involve promoting sustainable forest plantation initiatives through strategic encouragement and investment while highlighting responsible management practices. Also, it is advised to implement policies that encourage political stability and strengthen governance, thereby developing an enabling environment for effective poverty reduction.

Assessing infrastructure and trade connectivity through network analysis evidence from BRI countries

ABSTRACT The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) is the world’s largest infrastructure investment that aims to improve economic integration and connectivity throughout Asia, Europe, and Africa. This paper investigates the influence of infrastructure development on trade connectivity in BRI countries. This paper employs network analysis to visualize and quantify the trade connectivity among BRI countries in 2013 and 2020 using the World Integrated Trade Solution (WITS) data. The study then empirically examines the impact of infrastructure development on trade connectivity from 1990 to 2020 for 76 BRI countries using a dynamic estimator. The dynamic model demonstrates how infrastructure investment can bolster trade connectivity. The results of the network analysis indicate that trade connectivity has significantly improved within BRI countries, in Asia and Europe while it lags behind in African and Central Asian regions.We suggest that that China should channel additional resources toward enhancing the connectivity of African and Central Asian nations.

Examining the Coopetition Relationships in Renewable Energy Trade among BRI Countries: Complexity, Stability, and Evolution

The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) has significantly transformed the traditional energy market and reshaped international cooperation and conflict dynamics through its expanding trade in renewable energy resources. This study focuses on examining the complex and evolving nature of coopetition relationships in the renewable energy trade among BRI countries from 2013 to 2020. Understanding the interplay between cooperation and competition in this sector is crucial for comprehending the dynamics and stability of these trade relationships. Using a signed network approach, the findings of this study reveal that the countries predominantly exhibit a cooperative relationship. However, as time progresses, a notable pattern emerges, characterized by the coexistence of “competitive cooperation” and “cooperative competition”. In addition, coopetition group clustering is strongly influenced by geographical location. China, as a key player in the BRI, demonstrates a coopetition group characterized by a high inflow and low outflow pattern. Furthermore, the implementation of the BRI has greatly improved the overall stability of trade along the route. However, the coexistence of competition and cooperation among nations has increased the uncertainty of trade relations, thereby exerting a certain level of influence on their stability. Based on these findings, this study proposes policy recommendations to strength renewable energy trade relationships along the BRI route.

Changing profiles of the burden of Alzheimer's disease and other dementias attributable to smoking in the belt and road initiative countries: A secondary analysis of global burden of disease 2019

ObjectivesThis study was aimed at analyzing the burden and trend of Alzheimer's disease and other dementias attributed to smoking (SADD) in the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) countries during 1990–2019. MethodsData from The 2019 Global Burden of Disease Study was used to extract information on the burden of SADD in terms of the numbers and age-standardized rate of mortality (ASMR) and disability-adjusted life years (ASDALR) in the BRI countries for 1990–2019. The average annual percent change (AAPC) was used to analyze the temporal trends of ASDALR from 1990 to 2019 and in the final decade by Joinpoint regression analysis. ResultsThe DALYs of SADD were the highest in China, India, and the Russian Federation in 1990 and in Lebanon, Montenegro and Bosnia, and Herzegovina in 2019. From 1990 to 2019, the ASDALR in China had increased from 55.50/105 to 66.18/105, but decreased from 2010 to 2019, while that of India had declined from 32.84/105 to 29.35/105, but increased from 2010 to 2019. The ASDALR showed the fastest increase in the Russian Federation, with AAPC of 1.97% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.77%, 2.16%), and the fastest decline in Sri Lanka, with AAPC of −2.69% (95% CI: 2.79%, −2.59%). ASMR and ASDALR from SADD showed a substantial decline during 1990–2019 both globally and in the different socio-demographic index (SDI) regions (all P < 0.05, except for the high-middle-SDI region). Compared to the rates in males, the AAPC in ASDALR of females was significantly greater in 20 countries(all P < 0.05). In the age group of 20–54 years, the DALYs rate showed a decreasing trend only in 13 members in the low-SDI region (all P < 0.05). ConclusionUnder the premise of eliminating the differences, mobilizing resources in the country itself, the BRI organization, and globally will help reduce the global SADD burden and achieve healthy and sustainable development.

Assessing the impact of international trade on ecological footprint in Belt and Road Initiative countries

The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) is one such comprehensive plan that aims to boost economic growth and connectivity across Africa, Asia, and Europe. While the effort may be good for boosting exports and foreign direct investment (FDI), some are worried about the toll it may take on the environment. Therefore, we aim to examine the effect of international trade and FDI on the ecological footprint in BRI countries, considering the mediating role of the environmental performance index. The CCEMG estimator was used to examine the impacts of imports, exports, FDI, population growth, urbanization, and the Environmental Performance Index (EPI) on the global ecological footprint. Our findings show that export has a positive relationship with ecological footprint. Similarly, imports and FDI revealed a positive association with the ecological footprint. Finally, environmental performance revealed a negative association with ecological footprint in BRI countries. Our findings support the pollution haven theory by demonstrating the critical importance of environmental regulations in enticing responsible investors. By using the ecological footprint as an all-encompassing measure of environmental effect, this study sheds light on the need to incorporate sustainability within the goals of the BRI. This research emphasizes the importance of adopting well-informed methods to promote sustainable development and mitigate the BRI's adverse environmental impacts.

Global economic structure transition boosts PM2.5-related human health impact in Belt and Road Initiative

The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) is an open platform for international cooperation proposed by China to promote common global development and prosperity. The BRI can promote the optimal allocation of resources and promote in-depth cooperation in international trade. Meanwhile, it can establish a green supply chain cooperation network to help BRI countries achieve green transformation. BRI has made a notable contribution to the rapid growth of cross-border trade. However, it has also brought environmental impacts. Given that little attention has been paid to the trade-embodied particulate matter 2.5 related human health impacts (PM2.5-HHI) throughout the BRI, this study accounts for and traces the embodied PM2.5-HHI flows between the BRI countries and non-Belt and Road Initiative (non-BRI) countries. Moreover, this study also uncovers the critical socioeconomic drivers of PM2.5-HHI changes in BRI countries during 1990–2015, based on the multi-regional input-output based structural decomposition analysis (MRIO-SDA). Results show that, firstly, BRI countries had significantly increased their economic added value by exporting products to the non-BRI countries. They also have brought PM2.5-HHI to themselves. Secondly, the final demand of BRI countries was the largest potential driving force of PM2.5-HHI of BRI countries. Thirdly, the emission intensity change of BRI is the key socioeconomic factor for reducing PM2.5-HHI. While per capita final demand level change of BRI and production structure change of non-BRI are the key socioeconomic factors for increasing PM2.5-HHI. The study's findings on the one hand can help reduce the PM2.5-HHI and impacts of environmental pollution of BRI countries from a global perspective by providing scientific support. On the other hand, they can help provide relevant policy recommendations for the green transformation of BRI and the construction of green BRI.

Income distribution and sustainable development nexus: Fostering poverty reduction and integrated sustainability amidst multi-dimensional regional integration

This study investigates the impact of income distribution as poverty reduction on sustainable development (SD), by taking the moderating role multidimensional regional integration (MRII) in fostering the integrated sustainability across 64 Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) countries from 2005 to 2020. Utilising Sys-GMM methodology, the findings support the notion that countries within the BRI are theoretically aligned with a sustainable development path as suggested by economic theory. Moreover, MRII significantly contributes to the integrated sustainability path. The direct channel analysis reveals a negative yet significant effect of income distribution on sustainable development, indicating an increase in disparity and capital management system. Conversely, the indirect channel suggests a reduction in disparity and regionally integrated BRI boost the sustainable poverty reduction. This study identifies positive contributions from macroeconomic conditions, institutional quality, and population size to BRI countries' sustainable development. Additionally, it suggests the inefficient utilisation of resources by BRI countries, particularly in government consumption. The study underscores the need for enhanced regional policies aimed at increasing income and reducing poverty to foster sustainable development. Upcoming research should investigate the unexplored effects of household consumption, financial inclusion, financial aid, and energy poverty influence on integrated sustainability, regarding global financial integration.

Revisiting the environmental Kuznets curve: assessing the impact of climate policy uncertainty in the Belt and Road Initiative.

Climate change repercussions such as temperature shifts and more severe weather occurrences are felt globally. It contributes to larger-scale challenges, such as climate change and biodiversity loss in food production. As a result, the purpose of this research is to develop strategies to grow the economy without harming the environment. Therefore, we revisit the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis, considering the impact of climate policy uncertainty along with other control variables. We investigated yearly panel data from 47 Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) nations from 1998 to 2021. Pooled regression, fixed effect, and the generalized method of moment (GMM) findings all confirmed the presence of inverted U-shaped EKC in BRI counties. Findings from this paper provide policymakers with actionable ideas, outlining a framework for bringing trade and climate agendas into harmony in BRI countries. The best way to promote economic growth and reduce carbon dioxide emissions is to push for trade and climate policies to be coordinated. Moreover, improving institutional quality is essential for strong environmental governance, as it facilitates the adoption of environmentally friendly industrialization techniques and the efficient administration of climate policy uncertainties.

Greening the belt and road: How GVCs revolutionize carbon intensity in participating countries?

As a critical link between production and carbon transfers, Global value chains (GVCs) increasingly support the green industrial transformation in the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) countries. Based on the theoretical analyses, this study estimates the impact of GVCs participation on carbon intensity using the panel data in 22 BRI countries of 40 industries during 2000–2019, it also distinguishes the effects of national-industrial-ownership heterogeneity and clarifies the influence paths. The main findings are: (1) The average carbon intensity level presents a downward trend, and the GVCs position improved gradually recently after a long term decline before 2014 in fluctuation. Both behave differently when distinguishing participants at the country-industry-ownership dimensions. (2) GVCs position has a robust and negative correlation with carbon intensity. (3) At the national scale, developing countries and Annex I countries in the Kyoto Protocol benefit more from GVCs position upgrading in carbon reduction. At the industrial level, increase in GVCs position has significant carbon mitigation effects on agriculture and manufacture (labor and capital intensive) industries, while not significant in service (technology intensive) industries. Considering firm ownership, domestic firms could realize more carbon reduction through GVCs position revolution, while it's not significant for multinational enterprises. (4) From mechanism analyses, the suppression of carbon intensity by GVC upgrading is mainly exerted through its impact on improving capital and labor efficiencies. Policy implications on carbon intensity reduction are finally suggested.

Aligning the BRI With Sustainable Development: A Regulatory Framework and Its Implementation

China’s overseas investment through the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) has not only encountered challenges relating to environment, human rights, digital governance and security, but is also mired in political and economic critiques. Mobilizing BRI investment can promote equitable economic and social growth, but only if it contributes to sustainable development of countries along the BRI (BRI countries). In recent years a regulatory framework for China’s sustainable overseas investment is emerging to align the BRI with sustainable development, which can be attributed with characteristics that essentially combine three tiers and four elements in nature. The three tiers inherently consist of the network of investment treaties, domestic regulation and soft law, while the four elements include rules with restrictive effects that imposes restrictions regarding environment, climate change and human rights on overseas investment, and rules with stimulative effects that encourage investors to adopt instruments like green finance and digitalization. In terms of the implementation of the framework, China has made significant strides in building its domestic capacity for the implementation through legal cooperation and judicial support, and further works with BRI countries to potentially direct the implementation towards a shared normative commitment based on the United Nations (UN) 2030 Agenda. BRI, sustainable development, regulatory framework, environmental protection, human rights, green finance, DSR, implementation, legal cooperation, judicial support

Belt and Road - A Determination of its Success in Countries in Global Communities

The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) launched by China in 2013 aims to improve global connectivity, facilitate trade, and promote economic growth. While the BRI has seen success in many member countries, some countries have experienced limited benefits. This research paper explores the factors contributing to the success or failure of the BRI in different countries. Drawing from existing literature, we identify transparency, debt sustainability, environmental standards improvement, adoption of social safety nets, and labor mobility as key factors influencing the BRI's outcomes. We analyze data from selected BRI countries, including Cuba, Chile, Gabon, Portugal, and Singapore, to assess the impact of these factors. Transparency is measured using the HRV index, debt sustainability using the GDP-Debt Ratio, environmental standards improvement using the Air Pollution Exposure Index, adoption of social safety nets using healthcare expenditure as a percentage of GDP, and labor mobility using data from the International Labor Organization. Additionally, we examine the GDP per capita as an economic status indicator. Our findings reveal variations in the success of the BRI across different countries, with factors such as transparency, debt sustainability, and environmental standards playing significant roles. The research provides insights into the complex dynamics of the BRI and offers valuable recommendations for improving its effectiveness in member countries.&#x0D;

Carbon Footprint of Railway Projects Under the Belt and Road Initiative and the Future Low‐Carbon Pathways

AbstractThe Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) makes headway in constructing railway projects invested by China, yet related environmental impacts are rarely discussed. Here we quantify the carbon footprint of railway project construction (RPC) under the BRI and identify the drivers behind their variations to find possible carbon reduction pathways. Our results show that China‐invested overseas RPC in BRI countries induced 2,095.2 Mt CO2 emissions through the global supply chains during 2008–2017. Specifically, 73% of the carbon footprint relies on supply chains in BRI countries, and 27% spills over to other regions serving as the suppliers of global resources. Upgrading key industries' technological levels in BRI countries to China's average level can mitigate the carbon footprint by 77%. Once all industries achieve China's average technological level, nearly 90% of the carbon footprint can be avoided. The findings potentially provide valuable insights into achieving sustainable project construction in cross‐regional cooperation and promoting green development of the BRI.

Proposing a sustainable investment index for measuring economic performance and sustainability: A step toward clean and affordable energy

Numerous economic and non-economic factors significantly influence decision-making concerning investments in green energy. However, developing an index that allows for benchmarking and evaluating economic performance and overall sustainability on a global scale is imperative. In this regard, this study introduces the Green Energy Sustainable Investment Index (GESII) as a composite measure utilizing entropy weight and the “Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS)” approach. This index encompasses 47 countries and comprises 22 indicators categorized into four dimensions: social, economic, environmental, and institutional. Over the period spanning from 2006 to 2020, this study analyzes the progression of GESII for forty-seven countries affiliated with the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Singapore secures the top position in the overall GESII ranking, followed by Estonia, Brunei Darussalam, the United Arab Emirates, and the Czech Republic. Conversely, Iran and Lebanon occupy the lowest positions in GESII, indicating that these countries have the poorest scores across all four dimensions. In addition to presenting the overall rankings, this study offers comparative analyses of the leading three country profiles for each region within the BRI countries based on GESII. The newly proposed index, GESII, is valuable for guiding investment decisions and contributing to policy discussions.

Does the BRI contribute to poverty reduction in countries along the Belt and Road? A DID-based empirical test

Most countries along the Belt and Road are developing countries that face pronounced challenges due to poverty. The Chinese government has committed to implementing the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) to establish a ‘Road to Poverty Reduction’. This study explores the impact of the BRI on poverty reduction in participating countries as well as the mechanisms underlying this impact. This research is of great significance to the continuing implementation of the BRI and global poverty governance. Based on a panel dataset extending from 2005 to 2019 and encompassing 151 countries, this article uses the difference-in-differences method to examine the Initiative’s impact and conducts heterogeneity analysis to explore the mechanism underlying this impact in further detail. This approach results in four findings. First, joining the BRI can significantly reduce poverty rates in these countries. Second, the policy effect exhibits a time lag. In the long term, the poverty reduction effect becomes more significant. Third, the BRI can significantly reduce poverty in countries neighbouring China and in lower-middle-income countries. The Land Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21st-Century Maritime Silk Road distinctly reduce poverty. Fourth, the BRI contributes to poverty reduction in BRI countries by facilitating trade, enhancing financial and credit systems, increasing China’s greenfield investment, and establishing digital infrastructure. Additionally, the BRI promotes poverty reduction through increased bilateral visits and technical cooperation, whereas knowledge sharing remains an area in need of further development. Through theoretical analysis and empirical tests, this article evaluates the policy effect of the BRI on poverty alleviation, tests the underlying mechanism, and responds to some concerns expressed by the international community. The findings of this article provide a feasible direction for improving the ability of the BRI to reduce poverty more effectively in the future and thus achieve the United Nations’ sustainable development goals (SDGs).

Environmental technology import and carbon emissions intensity convergence: Analysis for the Belt and Road Initiative countries

Since the official launch of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in 2013, China and the BRI countries have been working for the implementation of certain environmental measures to make the BRI project green and clean. For this purpose, China and the BRI countries have planned to implement certain environmental measures. Although China can efficiently implement these measures, most of the BRI countries face technological deficiencies and lack of proper environmental plannings. To tackle these deficiencies, the BRI countries can import environmental technology from China. Moreover, they can communicate their environmental protection policies with China for better policy guidance. The current study, therefore, aims to examine whether the BRI countries’ import of environmental technology from China can reduce carbon emissions in these countries. Moreover, it also examines that whether these countries should follow the environmental policy and the import policy of China or they should follow the six European countries (EU-6) with minimum carbon emissions intensity. This study considers a sample of 88 selected BRI countries (BRI-88) for the period 2001–2019. The results obtained with β convergence (based on the panel quantile regression model) suggest that not all the BRI countries but only the BRI countries with relatively higher carbon emissions intensity can significantly reduce their average carbon emissions intensity by importing environmental technology from China. Moreover, BRI countries can follow the environmental policy of China which is more feasible for them. However, regarding the environmental goods import policy, BRI countries can follow both China and the EU-6.

Does Belt and Road Initiative attract Cross‐Border M&amp;As from other countries?

AbstractThis article examines how the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) affects Cross‐Border M&amp;As (CMAs) inflows to countries along the Belt and Road routes (BRI countries) from non‐BRI countries. We conduct a difference‐in‐differences estimation with a control group constructed through propensity score matching. We find that the BRI significantly reduces CMAs from non‐BRI countries to BRI countries. The results are robust to various concerns and specifications. We uncover two important mechanisms driving the results: the increased CMAs within BRI countries and the potential debt risks. We also find heterogeneous effects across countries.

An assessment of renewable energy development in Belt and Road Initiative countries: An entropy and TOPSIS approach

The development of renewable energy is a significant global factor in the achievement of a green economic recovery after the epidemic, and to enhance sustainable social development in the future. However, the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) countries are experiencing regional differences in renewable energy development owing to the different economic and social levels. It is of theoretical and practical significance to assess the situation of renewable energy development in BRI countries, in order to identify the advantages and disadvantages of renewable energy development and to enhance energy cooperation between countries. In this paper, a multidimensional assessment for BRI countries (47 countries/regions across Asia, Europe, Africa, the Americas, and Oceania) was carried out based on empirical data, (including institutional, economic, technological, energy and environmental facets). The Entropy Weight Method and the Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to an Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) were selected to assess the level of renewable energy development in BRI countries during the period 2009–2017. The results demonstrated that BRI countries/regions had a low overall level of renewable energy development during the study period, but a stable and rising development trend was identifiable. For example, certain countries/regions (e.g. Mainland China, Indonesia, Pakistan, Russia, South Africa and New Zealand) experienced significant growth during the period. When analyzed by continents, the Americas and Oceania had the highest level of renewable energy development, followed by Europe, with Asia and Africa ranking lowest. Europe and Oceania’s notable advantages in “institutional and economic facets” were primarily as a result of the enhanced governance capability and superior economic development. The superior maturity of renewable energy technology in the Americas and Oceania contributes to the superior performance in the “technological facet”. The countries with superior development in the “energy and environmental facets” are located in Asia, Oceania and Europe.

Modeling spatial-temporal variability of PM2.5 concentrations in Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) region via functional adaptive density approach.

The rapid development of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) has led to severe air pollution dominated by PM2.5 concentrations which can cause a profound negative impact on human health and economic activity. This problem poses a critical environmental challenge to efficiently handling large-scale spatial-temporal PM2.5 data in this extended region. Functional data analysis (FDA) technique offers powerful tools that have the potential to enhance the analysis of spatial distributions and temporal dynamic changes in high-dimensional pollution data. However, modeling the spatial-temporal variability of PM2.5 concentrations by FDA remains unrevealed in the BRI region. To address this research gap, our study aimed to achieve two main objectives: first, to model the spatial-temporal dynamic variability of PM2.5 in 125 BRI nations (1998-2021), and second, to identify the underlying clusters behind the variations. We employed the recently developed functional adaptive density peak (FADP) clustering approach to solve the current problem. The proposed method is based on the joint use of functional principal components (FPCs) and functional cluster analyses. The main results are as follows: (i) The first three FPCs almost captured 99% of the total variations involving all valuable information on PM2.5 concentrations. (ii) PM2.5 pollution was highly concentrated in the developing countries (Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nigeria) and the developed countries (Arabian Gulf countries: Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Oman), and the least developed countries (Yemen and Chad). (iii) Three optimal clusters were identified and thus classified the PM2.5 into three distinct degrees of pollution: severe, moderate, and light. (iv) Cluster 1 had a severe pollution effect degree with a high rate of change, and it covered the Arabian Peninsula countries, African countries (Cameroon, Egypt, Gambia, Mali, Mauritania, Nigeria, Sudan, Senegal, Chad), Bangladesh, and Pakistan. (v) About 62 BRI countries belonged to cluster 2 showing a light pollution degree with annul average of less than 20 [Formula: see text]; this pointed out that the PM2.5 concentration remains stable in the cluster 2-related countries. The findings of this research would benefit governments and policymakers in preventing and controlling PM2.5 pollution exposure in BRI. Furthermore, this research could pay attention to sustainable development goals and the vision of the Green BRI policy.