Belief Systems Research Articles

The problem of toleration: Tacitus, Foucault and governmentality

ABSTRACT This article proposes a novel interpretation of Montaigne’s and Bayle’s comments on Tacitus. My contention is that their Tacitism is a Foucauldian discourse on toleration. Toleration is an example of governmentality, a strategy to govern a population, not a genuine call for religious diversity. This novel reading applies to Michel de Montaigne’s Essays and Pierre Bayle’s Various Thoughts on the Occasion of a Comet and his Historical and Critical Dictionary. Montaigne’s essay On the Useful and the Honourable, he shows that there is a difference between his public and private persona. The author discusses ideas of toleration in a Tacitist style. This happens in his essay Something Lacking in Our Civil Administrations, where the author laments the death of Sebastian Castalio and, indirectly, he supports his commitment to religious pluralism. As I will show, Montaigne embraces a Gallican belief system, which is more conciliatory Bayle a century later, discusses the same issues. In his Various Thoughts, he makes a case for toleration as a tool to manage a population. Ultimately, it will be clear how this plea for toleration is not a product of the Enlightenment, but it is rather a discourse to achieve societal compliance.

Adapting To The New Normal: Assessing Levers Of Control Implementation In Indonesian Organizations Post-COVID

This systematic literature review investigates the application of the Four Levers of Control (4LOC) framework in Indonesian organizations post-COVID-19. The research method involved a systematic search of electronic databases and analysis of relevant literature. Major findings indicate that effective implementation of the 4LOC framework contributes to organizational resilience, performance improvement, and competitive advantage across various sectors. Cultural factors, leadership styles, and strategic alignment emerge as critical determinants of success. The study underscores the versatility and effectiveness of the 4LOC framework in navigating challenges posed by dynamic environments. Conclusions highlight the importance of adaptive strategies, cultural sensitivity, and integrated control systems in driving sustainable growth and organizational success in Indonesia. Results indicate that LoC implementation has positively impacted organizational performance across sectors such as hospitality, start-ups, state-owned enterprises, government organizations, manufacturing, and the service industry. Notably, effective utilization of belief systems, boundary systems, diagnostic control systems, and interactive control systems has been instrumental in fostering innovation, resilience, and strategic alignment. These findings underscore the importance of robust management control systems in achieving organizational objectives and navigating uncertainties. The review concludes by recommending further research to explore longitudinal effects, contextual influences, and the role of emerging technologies in enhancing LoC implementation.

Family resilience and vulnerability of patients at diagnosis of lung cancer: A qualitative study.

To explore and analyse the adaptation process of patients and their families at the point of lung cancer diagnosis. Totally 23 operable lung cancer patients were included in this study. Colaizzi's method of phenomenology was employed for data analysis. This study found two different aspects of family adaptation at the diagnosis of lung cancer. For family resilience, three themes emerged: (1) Positive family belief systems (giving meaning to a cancer diagnosis and maintaining a positive/optimistic attitude), (2) Flexible family organizational patterns (maintaining the stability of family structure and function, adjusting the relationship between patients and family members and receiving external support and help) and (3) Good communication and problem-solving strategies (open communication on an equal basis, positive and open expression of emotions and collaborative problem-solving). For family vulnerability, three themes were as follows: (1) Negative family belief systems (negative attitudes and concealment and self-isolation due to stigma), (2) Rigid family organizational patterns (adaptation lost, conflicts between family support and patients' willingness and pressure upon social support) and (3) Unhealthy communication and problem-solving (poor communication, emotional asymmetry of family members and tendency to solve problems alone). The study highlights the existence of the family resilience and family vulnerability at the point of lung cancer diagnosis and provides patient's perspective for understanding family resilience in specific cultural contexts. The data were collected through face-to-face interviews. ChiCTR2300074801.

Examining the impact of a group treatment using cognitive and social cognition remediation for young offenders: The justice health NSW school-link advantage pilot study.

Young offenders experience higher rates of neurodevelopmental and mental health disorders than the general population, and significant access barriers to health treatment. Treatment combining Cognitive Remediation Therapy (CRT) and Social Cognition Remediation Therapy (SCRT) has demonstrated benefits for functional improvements and social development. However, there is limited information regarding group treatment programs in custodial settings for young offenders. This pilot study explores the effectiveness and feasibility of a group treatment program for youth offenders with cognitive deficits and mental health concerns in youth detention. The School-Link Advantage pilot study designed and tested a 10-week group treatment program combining CRT and SCRT for young offenders in custody. The closed groups incorporated interactive activities focussed on emotional recognition and regulation skills, optimizing executive functioning, understanding values, exploring belief systems, improving relationships, and safety planning. Of the 22 male participants recruited in an Australian Youth Justice Centre, 12 completed all aspects of the treatment program, reflecting a 54.5% completion rate in a typically challenging to engage population cohort. Results demonstrated significant improvements in the ability to store and retrieve information, recognize information, and control emotions. Planning and organizing skills also showed considerable development. This pilot study suggests that a combined CRT and SCRT group treatment program has the potential to effectively target cognitive challenges associated with mental health disorders in young offenders in custody. These promising outcomes suggest exploring randomized controlled trials with increased cultural sensitivity for diverse populations.

Free entropy minimizing persuasion in a predictor–corrector dynamic

Persuasion is the process of changing an agent’s belief distribution from a given (or estimated) prior to a desired posterior. A common assumption in the acceptance of information or misinformation as fact is that the (mis)information must be consistent with or familiar to the individual who accepts it. We model the process as a control problem in which the state is given by a (time-varying) belief distribution following a predictor–corrector dynamic. Persuasion is modeled as the corrector control signal with the performance index defined using the Fisher–Rao information metric, reflecting a fundamental cost associated to altering the agent’s belief distribution. To compensate for the fact that information production arises naturally from the predictor dynamic (i.e., expected beliefs change) we modify the Fisher–Rao metric to account just for information generated by the control signal. The resulting optimal control problem produces non-geodesic paths through distribution space that are compared to the geodesic paths found using the standard free entropy minimizing Fisher metric in several example belief models: a Kalman Filter, a Boltzmann distribution and a joint Kalman/Boltzmann belief system.

Political Discourse Analysis of Donald Trump’s Rhetoric: A Linguistic Study of Cognition and Discursivity

To elucidate the deliberate use of Islamophobia in the political sphere, this study carefully examines Donald Trump's presidential campaign speeches using political discourse analysis (PDA). Trump’s Islamophobic position in political discourse has sparked a global discussion. His divisive political language during the 2016 elections contributed to an overall rise in incidents showing hatred for Muslims in the America by painting a poor picture of the Muslim world. The present study employs the theoretical framework of Van Dijk (1998) to examine the socio-political contexts of the discourse: participants’ insight (their goals, relevant knowledge and their belief system), group organization, power dynamics, as well as favourable and unfavourable perceptions of “us” against “them”. The purpose of the work is to highlight the processes by which Islamophobia is created, propagated, and normalised in public discourse. The nature of the current investigation involves heterogeneous techniques. It analyzes the text using PDA methods. Additionally, it computes word frequency to determine the proportion of positive to negative terms in Donald Trump's political speech. The analysis reveals that political leaders use language as a tool to serve their own political ends. This study focusses on understanding the complex interplay between language, power, and ideology in contemporary political communication. By shedding light on the pervasive influence of Islamophobia as a political strategy, it underscores the imperative of critically engaging with political discourse to challenge hegemonic narratives, and to foster all-inclusive and democratic societies. Political leaders frequently employ language as a weapon to further their agendas. This research work highlights the necessity of critically interacting with political discourse to challenge dominant narratives and promote inclusive and democratic societies by bringing to light the pervasive influence of Islamophobia as a political strategy.

Salvation, Enlightenment and Awakening in Shaping Followers' Perception and Understanding of Their Faith: A Linguistic Exploration

This paper examines how religious concepts of salvation, enlightenment, and awakening shape followers’ perception and understanding of their faith. Drawing on theories of language ideology (Woolard, 1998) and linguistic structuration (Giddens, 1979), it explores how linguistic and conceptual variations surrounding these key terms influence religious worldviews. A mixed methods approach integrates comparative-historical case studies, interviews, surveys, and textual analysis of three religious’ denominations. Findings reveal ideological divergences in the metaphorical framing of the key concepts, relating to differences in perceived resonances and definitions among followers. The study demonstrates that religious conceptual systems transmit between contexts via semiotic processes of indexicality and erasure, undergoing shifts in meaning. These ideological variations in turn contribute to divergent understandings of core principles across faith traditions. Ultimately, illuminating conceptual divergences and the symbolic processes by which they spread provides vital insight into religion’s cultural logic and diversity. The research contributes to theoretical models of religious language’s co-constitutive relationship with thought and experience. It offers an empirical approach employing cognitive linguistics and the sociology of religion to promote understanding across belief systems in an increasingly pluralistic world.

Cultural Revival Among Kikuyu Christians: Impact and Implications in the 21st Century

The Kikuyu people were exposed to Christianity in the year 1900 following the arrival of Reverend McGregor. Subsequently, an overwhelming majority of individuals have adopted Christianity, with more than 90% identifying themselves as Christians. Nevertheless, the amalgamation of Western and Christian cultures throughout history has posed difficulties for the revival of Kikuyu traditional rituals. However, Anglican Christians have observed a revival of Kikuyu cultural traditions in Murang'a County, Kenya, during the twenty-first century. This return signifies a deliberate embrace of traditions that were previously forsaken. The objective of this study is to discover and examine the revived cultural traditions within the Anglican community, such as the reverence of ancestors, the categorization of individuals by age, the act of sacrificing animals, traditional marriage ceremonies, and the use of traditional brew. The study investigates the impact of cultural revival on Kikuyu Christianity through qualitative methodologies, including observation and interviews. The primary findings indicate that cultural revitalization entails both benefits and drawbacks. On one side, it assists in resolving identity challenges and enhances relationships with the community and family. Nevertheless, it also cultivates duplicity, undermines the Christian belief system, and engenders discord within the Christian community. These findings emphasize the necessity for dialogue among Kikuyu Christians to reconcile traditional behaviors with Christian principles. This will promote an authentic African Christianity that embraces Christian values while recognizing and integrating indigenous heritage. This study adds to the current discussion on the relationship between culture and religion in modern African settings by examining the intricacies and impacts of cultural resurgence in Christian communities.

The Beliefs of Nonbelievers: Exclusive Empiricism and Mortal Finitude Among Atheists and Agnostics

Abstract This essay argues that “atheist” and “agnostic” are not merely negative labels that indicate a person lacks belief in God or is not religious. Relying on a new survey of very secular Americans and the General Social Survey, we demonstrate a statistically significant and substantively meaningful relationship, in both predictive directions, between identifying as atheist or agnostic and holding certain beliefs about how best to know the world and what happens when we die. We can reliably predict that most people in the United States who trust science, reason, and evidence and do not trust religious sources will identify as atheist or agnostic—and vice-versa. We find the same bi-directional relationship with belief in mortal finitude, i.e., that death is the final end. Our findings suggest that exclusive empiricism and mortal finitude are positive tenets of belief systems that those who identify as atheist or agnostic are likely to hold.

The Intricate Tapestry of Toraja Spirituality: An Exploration of Animism, Ancestor Veneration, and Symbolic Rituals

This study aims to explore the complex spiritual belief system and ritual practices of the Toraja people through a qualitative research design. Aligned with the study's objective of unraveling the multifaceted layers of ritual and understanding the connections between tradition and modernity, an ethnographic approach is employed. Researchers immerse themselves in the Toraja community to gain a deep understanding of cultural practices, beliefs, and values. This immersive experience involves participant observation and engagement with community members. In-depth interviews with key informants, such as elders or individuals knowledgeable about the ma’nene’ or corpse preservation tradition, provide insights into cultural nuances, symbolism, and changes over time. Audio-visual documentation, including recording rituals, interviews, and cultural events, enriches the study's depth and authenticity. Thematic analysis identifies and analyzes themes related to the ma’nene’ tradition, such as cultural preservation and the role of ritual in shaping collective identity. The discourse surrounding the ma’nene’ tradition reflects a complex spiritual belief system and ritual practices of the Toraja people, blending elements of animism, ancestor veneration, and a deep connection to the natural landscape. Specific items in offerings and their ritualistic consumption highlight the importance of symbolic actions in religious ceremonies. These findings extend beyond academic curiosity, impacting cultural appreciation, academic research, interfaith relations, and cultural heritage preservation positively. Through this comprehensive exploration, the study contributes to a deeper understanding and appreciation of Toraja spirituality and culture.

Varieties of Values: Moral Values Are Uniquely Divisive

Political scientists have long viewed values as a source of constraint in political belief systems. More recently, scholars have argued that values—particularly moral values—contribute to polarization. Yet, there is little direct and systematic research on which values are perceived as moral values. We examine 21 values, including Schwartz’s values, political values, and moral foundations. Drawing on a broad literature on cooperation, we first develop theoretical expectations for the extent of value moralization both between and within value systems. We next argue that this moralization matters because it intensifies the effects of value disagreement on social polarization. Using a probability-based survey of the US and an embedded conjoint experiment, we find substantial variation in moralization across values, and that highly moralized values are more polarizing. Our research brings together competing literatures on values and shows how moral values differentially shape polarization.

The Origin of Esotericism: An Analysis of the Ismaili Esoteric Approach to Qur’anic Interpretation

This study examines the Ismaili method of interpreting Qur’anic verses, focusing on their esoteric hermeneutics. The Quran serves as a fundamental legislative source for various theological factions, each seeking to substantiate their claims by referencing its verses. It also stands as a principal source for muhaddithin, fuqahā (jurisprudents), and others, contributing to the emergence of tafsir, a discipline aimed at elucidating the Quran's meanings and intentions. Consequently, different schools of interpretation, or tafsir, have developed over time. One strand of interpretation adheres to the literal meaning of the text, known as Zāhir, while another explores mystical or esoteric meanings, termed Bātin, occasionally without strong support from Arabic language or Qur’anic and Hadith evidence. Among Shiite sects, the Ismailis distinguish themselves as one of the most enduring, recognizing Ismail bin Ja'far al-Sādiq as their Imam and establishing influential states in Islamic history, such as the Qarmatian state in Bahrain (899–1077) and the Fatimid Caliphate in North Africa (909/1171). To thoroughly investigate this subject, a qualitative research approach is proposed. Given the historical and theological nature of the topic, qualitative methods, such as textual analysis and historical research, facilitate a comprehensive exploration and interpretation of complex phenomena. The findings of this research indicate that Ismailism has heavily relied on the esoteric interpretation of Qur’anic verses since its inception, aligning with Ismaili belief systems, with Qur’anic verses assuming a more significant role than Hadith in their doctrinal framework. The essence of this article lies in delving into the Ismaili approach to esoteric hermeneutics, predominantly drawing from the sect's primary sources.

The effect of justice sensitivity on malevolent creativity: the mediating role of anger and the moderating role of emotion regulation strategies

Backgroundthe AMORAL model emphasizes the close connection of individuals’ belief system and malevolent creativity. Belief in a just world theory (BJW) states that people have a basic need to believe that the world they live in is just, and everyone gets what they deserve. Therefore, justice matters to all people. Justice sensitivity, as one of individual trait, has been found associated with negative goals. However, relevant studies have not tested whether justice sensitivity can affect malevolent creativity and its psychological mechanisms. Additionally, researchers have found that both anger and emotion regulation linked with justice sensitivity and malevolent creativity, but their contribution to the relationship between justice sensitivity and malevolent creativity remained unclear. The current study aims to explore the influence of justice sensitivity on malevolent creativity, the mediating effect of trait anger/state anger on the relationship between justice sensitivity and malevolent creativity, and the moderating effect of emotion regulation on this mediating effect.MethodsA moderated mediating model was constructed to test the relationship between justice sensitivity and malevolent creativity. A sample of 395 Chinese college students were enrolled to complete the questionnaire survey.ResultsJustice sensitivity positively correlated with malevolent creativity, both trait anger and state anger partly mediated the connection between justice sensitivity and malevolent creativity. Moreover, emotion regulation moderated the indirect effect of the mediation model. The indirect effect of justice sensitivity on malevolent creativity through trait anger/state anger increased as the level of emotion regulation increased. The results indicated that justice sensitivity can affect malevolent creativity directly and indirectly through the anger. The level of emotion regulation differentiated the indirect paths of justice sensitivity on malevolent creativity.ConclusionsJustice sensitivity and malevolent creativity was mediated by trait anger/state anger. The higher sensitivity to justice, the higher level of trait anger/state anger, which in turn boosted the tendency of malevolent creativity. This indirect connection was moderated by emotion regulation, individuals with high emotion regulation are better able to buffer anger from justice sensitivity.

Intergenerational connections: Skipped generation family contact during the COVID‐19 pandemic

AbstractThis study investigates the association between the perceived impact of the COVID‐19 pandemic on skipped generation familial connections and subjective well‐being among grandchildren and grandparents across the United States. Guided by Walsh's family resilience model, this convergent mixed methods study drew on the survey responses of unrelated adolescent and young adult grandchildren (n = 66) and grandparents (n = 40). Correlational analyses revealed a significant association between perceived impact of COVID‐19 on one's skipped generation family relationships and subjective well‐being for grandchildren but not grandparents. The qualitative results demonstrate both a breakdown and build‐up of processes essential for family resilience: communication, organization, and belief systems. Together, these findings demonstrate the effects of COVID‐19 on skipped generation family relationships are complex, with ties between family members in younger and older generations being simultaneously strengthened and eroded. This study builds on our understanding of intergenerational familial contact when physical separation is present, allowing for more informed decisions as the effects of COVID‐19 on individuals, family systems, and relationships between family members—as well as geographic separation between generations more broadly—continue to evolve.

Defining the method of reflective equilibrium

The method of reflective equilibrium (MRE) is a method of justification popularized by John Rawls and further developed by Norman Daniels, Michael DePaul, Folke Tersman, and Catherine Z. Elgin, among others. The basic idea is that epistemic agents have justified beliefs if they have succeeded in forming their beliefs into a harmonious system of beliefs which they reflectively judge to be the most plausible. Despite the common reference to MRE as a method, its mechanisms or rules are typically expressed in a metaphorical or simplified manner and are therefore criticized as too vague. Recent efforts to counter this criticism have been directed towards the attempt to provide formal explications of MRE. This paper aims to supplement these efforts by providing an informal working definition of MRE. This approach challenges the view that MRE can adequately be characterized only in the negative as a set of anti-essentialisms. I argue that epistemic agents follow MRE iff they follow four interconnected rules, which are concerned with a minimalistic form of foundationalism, a minimalistic form of fallibilism, a moderate form of holism, and a minimalistic form of rationality. In the critical spirit of MRE, the corresponding working definition is, of course, provisional and revisable. In general, the aim is to contribute to a reflective equilibrium (RE) concerning MRE. If it is successful, this working definition provides a better grasp of the most basic elements of the method and thereby enhances our understanding of it.

War Becoming Phantasmal: A Cognitive Shift in Organized Violence beyond Traditional Limits

The entirety of human existence suggests multiple war theories and competing belief systems on what war is and how it can or cannot be exercised, even if we often are preoccupied with the current framework. Premodern societies differed from modern ones on whether humans or something divine or supernatural control the contexts and outcomes of war. Collectively, our species retains a firm appreciation of the assumed limits of what constitutes organized violence for political, social, or cultural aims, depending on the group and context. Yet in the twenty-first century, we may finally have set into motion the seeds of an unfamiliar, potentially incomprehensible, and likely transformative pathway where artificial intelligence or transhuman modifications may reveal what is called a “phantasmal transformation of war.” Complexity science explains reality and war so that earlier attempts—particularly those of the classical or natural science period and earlier prescientific attempts—are illuminated as insufficient or irrelevant outside of narrow or contextual applications. Today, Western militaries remain wedded to what is explained as a “Newtonian-style worldview” for understanding war, with select terms assimilated from complexity science and others ignored entirely. Indeed, modern military theorists assume an almost ideological devotion to what is largely a pseudo-scientific, static mode of framing war. Humans paired with certain advanced technology may also redefine war beyond previous physical domain and kinetic circumstances, including new manifestations in space, in cyberspace, and through accelerated human-machine teaming arrangements. Such novel conflict may in some applications exceed both human design and comprehension, potentially existing in planes or manifestations that are either undetectable by humans, rendered incomprehensible by select human actors, or potentially in modes that exceed the witting participation and awareness of our species.

The role of belief systems and misperceptions in halal tourism policy: evidences from Indonesia

The role of belief systems and misperceptions in halal tourism policy: evidences from Indonesia

‘Who tells me when to stay active or to leave?’ age differences in and predictors of endorsement of prescriptive views of aging

Objectives Prescriptive views of aging (PVoA) are normative age-based expectations about age-appropriate behavior for older adults, e.g. that they should stay fit/active (active aging norms) but also behave altruistically toward younger generations (altruistic disengagement norms). We aimed at examining age differences in endorsement of active aging and altruistic disengagement and investigated predictors of endorsement. Method In the AGEISM Germany survey, a representative sample of N = 1,915 German participants was recruited, covering a wide age range (Mage =56.57 years, 16-96 years). Cross-sectional data was collected via computer-assisted telephone interviews. Results Active aging was more strongly endorsed than altruistic disengagement. Endorsement of both PVoA was higher in older age groups – even more pronounced for altruistic disengagement. Endorsement of both norms was positively associated with positive age stereotypes. Furthermore, active aging was predicted by age centrality whereas altruistic disengagement was predicted by negative age stereotypes. Age was still a robust predictor of PVoA even after entering additional predictors. Conclusion Although associated, prescriptive age norms (i.e. beliefs how older people should behave) and descriptive age norms (i.e. beliefs about how older adults and the aging process are like) represent partly independent belief systems, highlighting the importance to assess & further investigate predictors and consequences of PVoA, which become more prevalent with age.

Nonsuicidal Self-Injury and Suicidal Beliefs in Adolescent Inpatient.

Background and Objectives: Although nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI), by definition, excludes suicidal intent, numerous studies show associations between NSSI and suicidal phenomena in clinical and outpatient adolescent samples. Given the growing interest in the relationship between NSSI and suicidal phenomena, the present study aimed to investigate the relationship between NSSI and suicidal beliefs in adolescent psychiatric inpatients. Materials and Methods: The study sample included 50 adolescent inpatients at a specialized facility, with a mean age of 15.44 ± 1.39, who fulfilled DSM-5 criteria for NSSI. For study purposes, we use the Ottawa Self-Injury Inventory (OSI) and Brief Suicide Cognitions Scale (B-SCS). Statistical data processing was performed in the R software 4.3.0 (R Core Team, Vienna, Austria). Results: Of all NSSI functions, the Internal ER function score was the highest (18.72 ± 7.08), followed by External ER (8.10 ± 3.11), Social Influence (5.88 ± 5.37), and Sensation Seeking (3.44 ± 2.98). The mean Craving (C) score was 14.06 ± 7.51. The mean value of the B-SCS score was 19.54 ± 5.24. It was found that the B-SCS score is significantly related to Internal ER (r = 0.441, p < 0.001) and Craving (r = 0.297, p = 0.036). The multivariable model shows that internal ER function and participants' age are significantly related to the B-SCS score. Conclusion: Despite the limitations of the study, it is emphasized that cognitions occurring across the fluid suicidal belief system alone do not fully capture the complexity of suicide, but assessing the suicidal belief system in NSSI inpatient adolescents could nevertheless provide helpful information for identifying individuals who may have an elevated vulnerability to experiencing suicidal ideas and behaviors over time.

Key Factors Influencing Inclusive Placement Decisions of Students With Extensive Support Needs

This qualitative study examined educational professionals’ experiences including students with extensive support needs (ESN) in general education settings. Data were collected from 18 education professionals, including 5 special education teachers, 5 paraeducators, 4 administrators, and 4 general education teachers. The researcher used semi-structured interviews and analyzed them using thematic coding. The findings showed that the significant factors influencing successful inclusion were the belief systems of educational professionals, the number of general education classes available for inclusion, selective data collection by educators, superficial inclusion of students, the critical role of paraeducators, and interpersonal relationships among parents and educators. Recommendations included using multiple data collection methods, documenting student work in inclusive settings, revamping the paraeducator hiring and training process, increasing collaboration between general and special education teachers, expanding the number of classrooms available for ESN students, training general education teachers to teach all students, and challenging deficit thinking in teacher education programs.