Reciprocity Beliefs Research Articles

An insight into the drivers of electronic word of mouth in tourism

There is a growing relevance for electronic word of mouth owing to the transformation induced by digital distribution of products and services. With the rising consumer trust on electronic word of mouth, one of the biggest challenges faced by companies is to motivate authentic customers to provide useful information in the form of reviews. This study has examined the various factors influencing tourist's intent to engage in electronic word of mouth. The results indicate that, belief in reciprocity has substantial influence on tourist's intent to engage in online word of mouth. The other factors which have an effect are tourist's sense of belonging to the online community and their satisfaction with destination attributes. Factors such as satisfaction with hotel attributes, pricing of hotel services, tourist personality score on extraversion scale and consumer involvement with tourism activity does not show any significant influence. Managers of tourism-based sites and tourism facilities need to focus on building appropriate mechanisms to cater to the underlying factors influencing electronic word of mouth intent to ensure that the sites get sustained contribution.

Research on the Relationship Between High-Commitment Work Systems and Employees' Unethical Pro-organizational Behavior: The Moderating Role of Balanced Reciprocity Beliefs.

Based on the social exchange theory, this paper explores the indirect impact of high-commitment work systems on employees’ unethical pro-organizational behavior. Through the analysis of multisource data from 139 companies (including 139 human resource managers and 966 employees), a multilevel structuring equation model is used to verify the study’s hypotheses. The research results show the following findings: (1) High-commitment work systems are significantly positively related to employees’ unethical pro-organizational behavior. (2) High-commitment work systems have indirect effects on the employees’ unethical pro-organizational behavior through the relational psychological contract. The relational psychological contract plays a mediating role in this process. (3) Employees’ balanced reciprocity beliefs significantly enhance the positive effect of relational psychological contracts on employees’ unethical pro-organizational behavior. It can also positively moderate the mediating effect of high-commitment work systems that affect employees’ unethical pro-organizational behavior via relational psychological contract.

Unethical pro-organizational behavior as an outcome of servant leadership

AbstractThis study tested the relationship between servant leadership, unethical pro-organizational behavior (UPB) of employee, trust in managers, and employees' positive reciprocity beliefs (PRB). Data were collected from 392 employees who work in four and five-star hotels in Alanya, Turkey. Structural equation modeling and artificial neural network analyses provided evidence for direct and indirect relationships between servant leadership and employee UPB via trust in manager and PRB. Specifically, trust in manager and PRB strengthened the relationship of servant leadership with employee UPB. These findings suggest that servant leadership could have a previously unexplored dark side in certain contexts. The study enhances the servant leadership and UPB literature. It also suggests certain practical implications for hotel managers to be able to reduce employee UPB. The limitations and future research suggestions of the study are discussed.

Ethicality neutralization and amplification: a multilevel study of ethical leadership and unethical pro-organizational behavior

PurposeThis study examines how ethical leadership (EL) influences followers' willingness to conduct unethical pro-organizational behavior (UPB) via reciprocity beliefs at the individual level and political climate at the group level.Design/methodology/approachTwo-point survey data were collected from 423 Chinese followers from 81 groups, and multilevel structural equation modeling was conducted to test the hypotheses.FindingsIndividual-level EL unintentionally increases follower UPB willingness by fostering reciprocity beliefs, while group-level EL intentionally reduces follower UPB willingness by controlling the political climate. The political climate plays both a cross-level moderated mediation role and a mediated moderation role between EL and UPB.Practical implicationsWhen seeking to decrease followers' intention to conduct UPB, managers are advised to use individual-level EL with care when the focus is on reciprocity, and they should consider using group-level EL more when the focus is on controlling political climate.Originality/valueThe study supports two distinct mediating mechanisms by examining individual-level EL (as a moral person) vs group-level EL (as a moral manager) on UPB, thereby revealing the reason for the mixed effects of EL on UPB.

The Cost of Repaying Trust: Examining Psychological Detachment as a Mediator in the Relationship Between Feeling Trusted and Work-Family Conflict.

BackgroundResearch on the “dark side” of feeling trusted has mainly focused on the workplace, paying much less attention to the non-work domain. Using social exchange theory as a basis, this research explored the effect of feeling trusted on work–family conflict and its underlying mechanisms.MethodsData were collected in two waves from 375 full-time employees from companies in different industries in China and path analysis was used to test our hypotheses.ResultsThe results showed that psychological detachment mediated the relationship between feeling trusted and work–family conflict. This mediating effect was moderated by positive reciprocity beliefs, with the effect being stronger for employees with strong (vs weak) positive reciprocity beliefs.ConclusionThis study advances research on the negative effects of feeling trusted, indicating that while it might be important for employees to repay supervisors’ trust, they also need to clearly delineate the boundary between work and family to reduce work–family conflict.

Abusive supervision and knowledge hiding in service organizations: exploring the boundary conditions

PurposeDespite burgeoning interest in knowledge hiding (KH), there are still significant gaps in the understanding of the boundary conditions under which KH is more or less likely to occur. To address this research gap, the researchers examined abusive supervision as an interpersonal antecedent of KH. In addition, this paper aims to investigate the moderating roles of negative reciprocity beliefs (NRB) and moral disengagement (MD) in the relationship between abusive supervision and KH.Design/methodology/approachTwo-wave data using a non-experimental face-to-face method was collected from 257 service employees in Pakistan, which supported the hypothesized model. Considering minimum sample size requirements (i.e. n = 208) in partial least squares structural equation modeling, the researchers analyzed a two-stage approach to test the measurement model and the structural model.FindingsThe study found that abusive supervision was positively related to evasive hiding and playing dumb but not associated with rationalized hiding. Further, the results confirm the moderating roles of NRB and MD. The positive relationships between abusive supervision and evasive hiding and playing dumb are intensified at high levels of NRB and MD.Originality/valueGiven the complicated nature of KH, this is one of the few efforts that outstretch the boundary conditions of KH.

Family-Supportive Supervisor Behavior, Felt Obligation, and Unethical Pro-family Behavior: The Moderating Role of Positive Reciprocity Beliefs

Drawing on social exchange theory, we argue that family-supportive supervisor behavior (FSSB) inhibits employees’ unethical pro-family behavior (UPFB) via the mediation of felt obligation. We further propose that employees’ positive reciprocity beliefs strengthen the hypothesized relationships. Using a sample consisting of 345 full-time employees from an Internet service company located in China, we found that felt obligation partially mediated the negative relationship between FSSB and UPFB and that the FSSB-felt obligation relationship and the mediation relationship were stronger for employees with higher positive reciprocity beliefs. Theoretical and practical implications, limitations, and future directions are discussed.

Research on the Decision-Making Mechanism Underlying Insurance Agents’ Intention to Disclose Frauds

Insurance fraud erodes the profits of insurance companies and damages the rights and interests of honest policyholders, and thus is a severe unethical behavior. A handful of literature suggest to designing effective contract to motivate agents to identify and report such fraud claims. However, what is the insurance agent’s potential gain and loss from reporting fraudulent claims remains unknown. Examining such gain and loss is notable, which constitutes the foundation of an effective contract design. To fill this research gap, drawing on principal-agent theory and social exchange theory, we analyzed the decision-making mechanism of insurance agents when they are faced with fraudulent claims. With two experiments, we found that value of policyholder negatively affected disclosure intention, return expectation of concealing the fraudulent claim mediated such relationship. Furthermore, we found that reciprocal belief strengthened the relationship between value of policyholders and return expectation of concealing fraudulent claims. The theoretical and practical implications of decision-making mechanism underlying insurance agents’ intention of reporting fraudulent claims were discussed.

Bearing the Burden: Outcomes and Moderators of Social Burden in the Workplace

In this study, we sought to replicate and extend the findings of past research dealing with social burden. Social burden is defined as behaviors from colleagues that elicit social support from coworkers. Previous research has demonstrated that social burden often leads to detrimental outcomes, despite the fact that the social burden is not, by definition, negative. However, further research is still needed to understand just how social burden impacts organizations and those within them. Using a large, diverse sample (N = 632), we assessed the effects of social burden on various attitudinal, well-being, and behavioral outcomes. In addition, we assessed interaction effects of both hostile attribution bias and negative reciprocity beliefs on the relationship between social burden and counterproductive work behavior. Results replicated previous findings and uncovered a novel interaction within the social burden and counterproductive work behavior relationship: higher levels of negative reciprocity beliefs strengthen the relationship between social burden and counterproductive work behavior. In addition, post-hoc analysis of the social burden construct found significant differences between the more emotion-laden social burden items and the more instrumental social burden items in their relationship with counterproductive work behavior.

Social Status and Charitable Giving in Pakistan: The Role of Gratitude, Reciprocity Beliefs, and Behaviors.

This examination explores the impact of economic wellbeing on altruistic giving by people. We proposed a theoretical framework thereby slightly modifying model, asserting that social status and Charitable Giving are complemented by gratitude and Reciprocity Behaviors, both positive and negative. These behaviors are in turn got affected by Reciprocity Beliefs. Hence these three psychological instruments, i.e., positive and negative correspondence conviction as well as appreciation estimation, are proposed to clarify the relationship between economic wellbeing and charitable giving. Three aspects of reciprocity: positive reciprocity, negative reciprocity, and beliefs in reciprocity were adopted from. Data was collected from 217 respondents residing in Pakistan through a close end questionnaire and was analyzed using Confirmatory factor analysis and Structural equation modeling. Members were approached to review the nature of their cash giving as it typically happens crosswise over various kinds of gifts. They likewise revealed their financial status, level of reciprocity conviction, and level of appreciation. Results demonstrated that economic well-being significantly anticipates charitable giving by people. As anticipated, high-status members gave more cash when they held a more grounded confidence in reciprocity while the result showed no significant relationship between gratitude and charitable giving.

The knowledge hiding link: a moderated mediation model of how abusive supervision affects employee creativity

ABSTRACTDrawing on social exchange and displaced aggression theories, this study investigates the mediating role of knowledge hiding in the relationship between employees’ exposure to abusive supervision and their creative performance, as well as the invigorating role of their negative reciprocity beliefs in this process. We collected time-lagged data from employees in a sample of Pakistani organizations and found that an important reason abusive supervision decreases employees’ creativity is that employees reciprocate through self-serving knowledge-hiding behaviour. This mechanism, in turn, is more prominent among employees who score high on negative reciprocity beliefs. This study reveals a key factor, i.e., knowledge hiding, by which abusive supervision hinders employees’ creativity, but our findings indicate that this process is more likely to escalate when employees have negative reciprocity beliefs, which cause them to be more vulnerable to experiencing negative social exchanges.

Train to retain: Training opportunities, positive reciprocity, and expected retirement age

This article contributes to research on older workers' sustainable employment by investigating the relation between training and expected retirement age. Past research has produced inconsistent findings, partly because studies rarely distinguish between the effects of training opportunities and actual training participation. To address this limitation, we examine the incremental effect of training opportunities over and above actual training participation. Grounded in social exchange theory, we argue that the effect of training opportunities on expected retirement age depends on employees' positive reciprocity orientation. Using matched employer–employee data (880 employees matched to 284 employers) our findings show that training opportunities associate with expected retirement age over and above employees' actual training participation, but only for employees with strong positive reciprocity beliefs. Moreover, a supplementary analysis showed that the strengthening effect of positive reciprocity only holds for organizations that are financially healthy. These findings are consistent with the idea that positive reciprocators will only avoid early retirement as a response to training opportunities when it is seen as a credible gesture to facilitate employees' future employability.

Unethical Pro-organizational Behavior and Positive Leader–Employee Relationships

Unethical pro-organizational behaviors (UPB) are unethical, but prosocially-motivated, acts intended to benefit one’s organization. This study examines the extent to which employees are willing to perform UPB to benefit a liked leader. Based on social exchange theory, we hypothesized that LMX would mediate the association of interpersonal justice with UPB willingness. Moral identity and positive reciprocity beliefs were examined as moderators. Higher LMX was significantly and positively related to UPB willingness, and the indirect effect of interpersonal justice on UPB via LMX was significant and positive. These findings suggest that LMX and interpersonal justice could have a previously-unexplored dark side. Moral identity had a negative direct relationship with UPB, but it did not moderate the relationship of LMX with UPB. Thus, LMX facilitates UPB willingness even when employees are high in moral identity. LMX is associated with many positive outcomes, but our results show that high LMX may also increase willingness to perform unethical behaviors to benefit one’s leader. These results contribute to the literature by identifying a potential negative outcome associated with high LMX.

The Dynamics of Belief Updating in Human Cooperation: Findings from inter-brain ERP hyperscanning

Generally, successful cooperation can only be established when the interacting persons believe that they would not be betrayed; this belief can be updated by observing the other persons' actual choices. Thus, the process of belief updating plays an important role in conditional cooperation. Using the Prisoner's Dilemma Game (PDG) with event-related potential (ERP) hyperscanning, this study investigated the dynamics of belief updating in a dyad. During the task, participants were asked if they believed that their opponent would cooperate in the next trial, and their answers functioned as a self-reported index of reciprocal belief. The results suggested that this index shows strong associations with participants' behavioral choices (cooperate/betray). At the individual level, the amplitudes of the ERP components frontal P3a and parietal P3b elicited by the decision outcome were sensitive to belief updating. At the interpersonal level, the between-subject synchronization in P3b was higher than those in the other conditions when the paired participants confirmed each other's reciprocal beliefs. Since previous studies have linked the P3b with memory updating, we suggest that a cooperative relationship is built up when the memory systems (which support belief updating) of two interacting persons reach a high level of coordination. These findings may help explain how conditional cooperation develops between strangers.

Research into food and trust: A critique and a proposal

Trust can be defined as the suspension of suspicion, the absence of calculation, and the belief in reciprocity. Its gold standard is rooted in personal intimacy. Yet societies where direct social contact becomes fleeting, impersonal, and instrumental, and where power is usually delegated, cannot bank on proximity to sustain exchange. While acknowledging that other mechanisms help coordinate interactions and commerce, many social-science studies nevertheless mean to assign a crucial role to trust. Metaphorical language then obtains. To overcome these difficulties in definition and heuristics, this article reformulates the problem with respect to trust in food. It proposes to study two dynamic social pro-cesses of trust building. The first approach explores the acquisition of an individual consumer competence to gauge a good’s acceptability and sustain confidence in its characteristics and utility. The second perspective tracks the institutional construction of trustworthiness whose aim it is to reduce the probability of exposure to a health hazard. The first represents consumers’ effort to limit the risks they take in their daily lives, the second constitutes society’s attempt to diminish the dangers its members encounter (and over which they have little or no control). Neither occurs in historical weightlessness as both happen in a field of force where the balance of power determines the extent of individual empowerment or of institutional protection.

The World Through Roman Eyes: Anthropological Approaches to Ancient Culture ed. by Maurizio Bettini and William Michael Short

Reviewed by: The World Through Roman Eyes: Anthropological Approaches to Ancient Culture ed. by Maurizio Bettini and William Michael Short Lora L. Holland Goldthwaite Maurizio Bettini and William Michael Short (eds.). The World Through Roman Eyes: Anthropological Approaches to Ancient Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018. Pp. xiv, 471. $150.00. ISBN 978-1-107-15761-3. Classics scholars and advanced students looking for new insights into the Roman world will find them in this rich volume of fifteen collected articles in English.1 [End Page 107] Laudable are its abundant documentation of sources on topics both familiar and novel, and a consistent methodology derived from the hermeneutical tools of the social sciences. One perspective that is missing is relevant feminist theory,2 and the focus on literary evidence means that useful material culture is often not considered. I will briefly address the contributions in order of appearance. "Comparison" and "Metaphors," by Bettini and Short respectively, address the theoretical underpinnings of the volume's methodology. Bettini argues for the need to examine both "universal traits" based on emic sources as well as cultural "oddities" based on etic observation; hence the volume's selection of themes and format. Short contributes a case study of alimentary language as a common cultural model of thinking and communicating in Latin rather than an élite metaphor. Pironti and Perfigli in "Polytheism" demonstrate convincingly how the Roman familia served as a model for the conception of "main" and "helper" gods (i.e., indigitamenta) that populated the Roman pantheon. Bettini's second contribution, "Myth," asserts that fabulae about the origins of Rome and its topography served also as their "verification and foundation." Prescendi's "Sacrifice" argues that the Roman formula do ut des was dependent more on belief in reciprocity than previous notions of perfunctory commercial transaction allowed. Cherubini's "Witches" is a fascinating analysis of the Roman conception of the strix and its continuity in Italian folklore. Especially useful is Lentano's "Kinship" discussion of cultural differences between agnates and cognates in the Roman family. Raccanelli and Beltrami's "Friendship and the Gift" delves deeply and expertly into Latin literature; but we miss incorporation of the amici memorialized in Latin epigraphy.3 Viglietti's excellent "Economy" addresses the notion of "scarcity" in the archaic and early Republican periods in Rome and its environs. In "Space," De Sanctis' take on Roman topography mirrors Bettini's "Myth" chapter, but goes beyond fabulae to a new analysis of the ritual foundation of the city. In "Animals," Franco presents an anthrozoological analysis of the cultural transference of Circe's tame beasts in Greek myth to caged wildness in Vergil's retelling in Aeneid 7. Hautala's "Plants" proposes a polythetic Greco-Roman methodology for classifying certain plants with reference to the divine body. Pucci's multi-faceted "Images" (written before the 2015 discovery of the Pylos Combat agate) [End Page 108] argues that Greek imagery is best understood as re-functionalized in its Roman context. Manetti's "Signs" examines in a wide range of texts how the Greek and Latin vocabularies of semiotics are paradigmatic of knowledge. The final chapter, "Riddles," is an enthralling study of "enigmatic discourse" focusing on the late Antique poet Symposius, and Ovidian oracles and dreams. Reader aids include an aggregated list of references, Greek and Latin word indices, and a general subject index. Even if one is not equally interested in all the subjects covered in this volume, it deserves to be read cover to cover for the overall picture of Roman culture it presents. Lora L. Holland Goldthwaite University of North Carolina at Asheville Footnotes 1. First published in Italian in 2014 as Con i Romani. Un'antropologia della cultura antica by Il Mulino Press in Bologna for €30,00 with the same introduction and articles, but in a slightly different order. The text-editing, bibliography, and translation of William Short's "Metaphors" article in the Italian original were done by Alessandro Buccheri, who is not acknowledged in this English version. William Short is thanked for translating the "Polytheism" article into English (71), but I could not find who was responsible for the remaining translations, or in fact any reference to the original publication...

Linking Proactive Personality to Life Satisfaction in the Chinese Context: The Mediation of Interpersonal Trust and Moderation of Positive Reciprocity Beliefs

This paper examines the moderating effect of positive reciprocity beliefs and the mediating effect of interpersonal trust on the relationship between proactive personality and individual life satisfaction in China. In study one, 371 employees completed a survey, the results of which showed that proactive personality was positively related to employee life satisfaction; however, positive reciprocity beliefs did not moderate this association. In study two, 244 Chinese adolescents completed a two-wave survey with a 4-month interval. These results also confirmed that proactive personality was positively related to individual life satisfaction, and interpersonal trust mediated the association. Positive reciprocity beliefs moderated the effect of proactive personality on interpersonal trust and, furthermore, moderated the mediating effect of interpersonal trust on the relationship between proactive personality and life satisfaction. The findings, theoretical contributions, and practical implications of the present paper are discussed further.

Helping with Attitude: The Effects of Expressed Emotions on Social Closeness and Reciprocity

Research on the exchange of helpful behaviors has predominantly supported the notion of reciprocity. While research has suggested that the experience of emotions may influence reciprocity, we draw on the emotions as social information (EASI) framework (Van Kleef, 2009) to suggest that the expression of emotions impacts recipient reactions to help. Specifically, we hypothesize that expressions of socially engaging emotions (gratitude and sympathy) and socially disengaging emotions (pride and contempt) differentially impact social closeness, which then influences the recipient’s subsequent attitudinal and behavioral reactions. Additionally, we hypothesize that the effect of social closeness on behavioral reciprocity depends on individual differences in the recipient’s reciprocity beliefs. In a laboratory study, we find evidence that expressions of socially engaging emotions lead to more favorable attitudes towards the helper (satisfaction and viability of the relationship) and that this effect is mediated by social closeness. We also find evidence that the effects of social closeness on direct reciprocity depends on the recipient’s reciprocity beliefs. However, we do not find evidence of an overall mediating effect of expressed emotions on direct reciprocity mediated by social closeness. These findings suggest that the expression of discrete emotions may either facilitate or inhibit reciprocity.

Reciprocity belief and gratitude as moderators of the association between social status and charitable giving

This study investigates the effect of social status on charitable giving by individuals. Based on research on economic reciprocity, two psychological mechanisms, i.e., reciprocity belief and gratitude sentiment, are proposed to explain the association between social status and charitable giving. Participants were asked to recall the nature of their money giving as it usually occurs across different types of donations. They also reported their socioeconomic status, degree of reciprocity belief, and level of gratitude. Results showed that social status significantly predicted charitable giving by individuals. As predicted, high-status participants donated more money when they held a stronger belief in reciprocity, whereas low-status participants tended to be more generous in their donations when they felt more gratitude.

Once Bitten, Twice Shy: Trust, Reciprocity, and the Hot-Cold Empathy Gap

Studying a binary-choice trust game, we find that trustors’ beliefs about others’ reciprocity serve as a moderator for the intrapersonal relationship between trust and reciprocity: Optimistic trustors’ willingness to trust is positively influenced by their own reciprocity, whereas the contrary is true for pessimistic trustors. We suggest that people’s reciprocity beliefs determine their state of arousal, which in turn affects their anticipation of future emotions.