Justice Beliefs Research Articles

Positive Atheism: Bayle, Meslier, d'Holbach, Diderot by Charles Devellennes

Reviewed by: Positive Atheism: Bayle, Meslier, d'Holbach, Diderot by Charles Devellennes Lloyd Strickland Charles Devellennes, Positive Atheism: Bayle, Meslier, d'Holbach, Diderot (Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press, 2021). Pp. 240. $105 cloth. How best to study the development of modern atheism? In Positive Atheism, Charles Devellennes argues that while others have sought to do so from the perspective of those who accused others of atheism, there is instead "an obvious alternative that has at least equal validity and coherence: starting with the atheists" (3). Accordingly, this book offers a study of eighteenth-century atheism from the perspective of atheists themselves. Or rather, from the perspective of four thinkers who took atheism to be a positive doctrine in its own right, with important social, ethical, and political implications. These implications are the beating heart of this book. Positive Atheism consists of an introduction followed by five chapters. Each of the first four chapters is devoted to one of the four thinkers named in the book's subtitle—Pierre Bayle, Jean Meslier, Baron d'Holbach, and Denis Diderot—while the final chapter concerns the state of atheism in France in 1789. Chapter 1 begins with Bayle's oft-made argument that since moral action stems from the passions rather than principles, it is possible for there to be virtuous atheists. That belief, coupled with his assertion that people should be free to follow their consciences, even if their consciences are wrong, culminates in a doctrine of toleration towards all, including atheists, even under the most extreme of provocations. Chapter 2 examines the atheist system of Meslier, and the "form of radical politics" (63) built thereon, specifically, his call to overthrow the tyranny and domination of both the church and the political rulers in favor of a more egalitarian society. Chapter 3 carefully maps out both the "virtue utilitarian" (117) ethical theory that d'Holbach derives from his materialist ontology and his attendant vision of political and legal structures capable of attaining the goal of material well-being for all. Chapter 4 begins with Diderot's religious journey from deism to skepticism about both theism and atheism, before turning to his political thought, in particular his social contract theory, his push for reforms to promote greater equality, and his desire to subject church to state. [End Page 413] The book is perhaps best characterized as an apology for the aforementioned four apologists of atheism, with Devellennes keen to present in as charitable light as possible the different visions of society painted by these apologists (though he does also point out some obvious weaknesses along the way, such as d'Holbach's under-motivated belief in natural justice, where virtue and vice are naturally rewarded and punished). As such, it is a successful work, as clear and rich in detail as it is erudite. In terms of reservations, I shall mention two. First, the title of the book, Positive Atheism, is apt to lead a potential reader to think that its focus will be squarely on the active denial of God, which is how the term "positive atheism" is normally understood, as Devellennes himself notes early on (7). However, as should be clear enough from the brief account of the first four chapters given above, the focus of the book is more on the social, ethical, and political implications of atheism than the actual rejection of God per se. The apparent discrepancy between book title and book content is removed halfway through the introduction, where Devellennes explains that he is recasting "positive atheism" as not merely a denial of God "but as a potentially independent mode of thought, seeking self-mastery and autonomy" (12). So construed, it becomes clear why so much space in the book is devoted to the social, ethical, and political thought of the four protagonists named in the title. But of course, one needs to have already started reading the book to know that Devellennes is operating with this novel understanding of "positive atheism." Those who base their expectations of a book's content on its title might well expect a greater focus on the four protagonists' actual denial of God than is to be found here. Devellennes' novel understanding...

Race, Ethnicity, Justice, and Self-Regulating Beliefs among a Sample of Justice-Involved Men and Women

Drawing on elements from the process-based model of policing, intersectionality, critical race perspectives, and comparative conflict theory, the study explores the pathways by which racial and ethnic identity influence self-regulating beliefs among justice-involved individuals. Given that people of color within this group are acutely aware of criminal justice system oppression and inequalities and have likely internalized negative expectations as part of their identity, we consider whether procedural justice perceptions of the police and courts mediate the relationship between racial and ethnic identity and obedience to the law. Relying upon data from a sample of men and women incarcerated in Florida, the findings reveal a negative, indirect relationship between race and self-regulating beliefs, such that Black individuals perceive the police as less procedurally just, which spills over onto perceptions of court procedural justice, and ultimately decreases the willingness to obey. A similar relationship is not found for Hispanic individuals.

Justice beliefs and cultural values predict support for COVID-19 vaccination and quarantine behavioral mandates: a multilevel cross-national study.

Understanding how individual beliefs and societal values influence support for measures to prevent SARS-CoV-2 transmission is vital to developing and implementing effective prevention policies. Using both Just World Theory and Cultural Dimensions Theory, the present study considered how individual-level justice beliefs and country-level social values predict support for vaccination and quarantine policy mandates to reduce SARS-CoV-2 transmission. Data from an international survey of adults from 46 countries (N = 6424) were used to evaluate how individual-level beliefs about justice for self and others, as well as national values—that is, power distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, long-term orientation, and indulgence—influence support for vaccination and quarantine behavioral mandates. Multilevel modeling revealed that support for vaccination and quarantine mandates were positively associated with individual-level beliefs about justice for self, and negatively associated with country-level uncertainty avoidance. Significant cross-level interactions revealed that beliefs about justice for self were associated more strongly with support for mandatory vaccination in countries high in individualism, whereas beliefs about justice for others were more strongly associated with support for vaccination and quarantine mandates in countries high in long-term orientation. Beliefs about justice and cultural values can independently and also interactively influence support for evidence-based practices to reduce SARS-CoV-2 transmission, such as vaccination and quarantine. Understanding these multilevel influences may inform efforts to develop and implement effective prevention policies in varied national contexts.

Связь веры в справедливость с типичностью комплементарных стереотипов богатых и бедных

Objective. Analysis of the contribution of complementary and non-complementary stereotypes and assessing their typicality in the level of belief in a just world (BJW) among employees of commercial and non-profit organizations.Background. Increasing economic inequality makes it relevant to study the relationship between the assessment of the world as just and the relationship to the rich and poor. According to the theory of system justification by J. Jost, people are motivated to support the status quo, including by relying on complementary stereotypes that combine desirable and undesirable qualities in one image. Research by A. Kay and J. Jost (2003) has shown that actualizing complementary stereotypes of the unhappy rich and the happy poor increases the level of the acquitting of systems. However, the nature of the impact of complementary stereotypes and non-complementary stereotypes on the belief in justice, depending on the initial just-world belief level, and the contribution of subjective assessment of the typicality of complementary stereotypes and non-complementary stereotypes to the just-world belief level remains poorly studied.Study design. A two-factor plan was used to analyze the contributions of the actualization of stereotypes and the place of work to the level of the just-world belief scales. The paper studied the dependence of the level of the just-world belief scales on the place of work of the respondents, the conditions of filling the questionnaire (after actualization of complementary stereotypes, non-complementary stereotypes, and without reading the texts), and the relative contribution to the level of the just-world belief scales of the conditions of filling the questionnaire and assessing the typicality. The method of analysis of variance was used to compare the just-world belief level in groups of employees of commercial and non-profit organizations under different filling conditions. Regression analysis was used to assess the contribution of gender, age, place of work, and the assessment of the typicality of complementary stereotypes and non-complementary stereotypes to the just-world belief level.Participants. 260 people, including 130 employees of non-profit organizations, 130 employees of commercial organizations, the average age was 36 years.Measurements. Vignettes with descriptions of complementary stereotypes and non-complementary stereotypes, the just-world belief questionnaire (S.K. Nartova-Bochaver et al., 2013).Results. For non-profit organizations employees, the level of both just-world belief scales decreases at non-complementary stereotypes actualization; for commercial organizations employees, it increases slightly at complementary stereotypes actualization in relation to the background. The level of BJW-others is determined only by the assessment of the typicality of complementary stereotypes. None of the considered predictors contributes to the BJW-self.Conclusions. The BJW-others is determined by a subjective assessment of the typicality of complementary stereotypes. The low level of BJW increases at complementary stereotypes actualization, and the high level of BJW decreases at non-complementary stereotypes actualization.

A pilot evaluation of sexual and gender minority identity measures in a treatment-engaged military veteran sample.

Sexual and gender minority (SGM) military veterans have endured a history of discriminatory policies and hetero- and cis-sexist-related military culture that can negatively impact identity and mental health. The present pilot evaluation examined measure characteristics of the Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Identity Scale (LGBIS) and lesbian, gay, and bisexual positive identity measure (LGB-PIM) in a clinical sample of SGM military veterans in order to assess the potential use of these instruments in understanding identity and mental health in the context of program implementation. A cross-sectional pilot survey of 83 SGM veterans was conducted in 10 veterans affairs sites. Self-report data were collected as part of a quality improvement project across 2018 and 2019. Results showed that the sample was characterized by low internalized prejudice and identity uncertainty, as well as generally high positive aspects of identity (e.g., identity affirmation, authenticity, social justice beliefs). LGB-PIM subscale internal consistency values were acceptable (α range = .89-.92), whereas LGBIS subscale values varied (α range = .51-.87). Acceptance concerns, identity uncertainty, and social justice beliefs distinguished mental health symptom severity levels. Higher identity uncertainty and social justice beliefs were associated with worse symptoms of depression, anxiety, and suicide risk. Preliminary results support further application and study of the LGB-PIM and some LGBIS subscales as possible tools in program development and improvement within military veteran samples. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Social Attitudes as the Factors of Environmental Identity of Ukrainian and Turkish Students

The problem of socio-psychological and cultural factors influencing environmental identity is considered. The results of a cross-cultural study of the relationship of such social attitudes as belief in a just world, individualism-collectivism, belief in the power of money, with environmental identity in groups of Ukrainian and Turkish students are presented. Differences in the environmental identity and social attitudes of students - representatives of Ukrainian and Turkish cultures are revealed. Turkish students differ from Ukrainian students by a more pronounced environmental identity. At the same time, in each cultural group, the indicators of environmental identity among female students are higher than those among male students. The differences between Turkish and Ukrainian female students are more pronounced than between Ukrainian and Turkish male students. Within the framework of the study as a whole, it is gender and cultural differences that are more significant predictors of environmental identity than the studied social attitudes. It was found that indicators of belief in a just world for others are higher for Turkish students than for Ukrainian students, while vertical individualism is higher in the group of Ukrainian students. Thus, Ukrainian students demonstrate a more pronounced commitment to an individualistic culture. The most closely related to the environmental identity of students, regardless of cultural influences, are the belief in a just world for all and belief in the power of money. If belief in general justice reinforces environmental identity and is reinforced by environmental identity, then belief in the power of money opposes to identification with the natural world. Based on the data from the sample as a whole, a regression model was built, which includes predictors: culture, gender, belief in the justice of the world for all, belief in the power of money. This model explains 34% of the total variance in environmental identity.

Cultural Capital and Volunteering: A Multilevel Study From China

In this article, we extend Wilson and Musick’s concept of cultural capital, which was defined as the culture of benevolence, to a multilevel concept and build a multilevel cultural capital theory about individual (nonmandatory) volunteering based on religious beliefs, political values, belief in social justice, and belief in social trust in the context of volunteering in China. Data from the 2012 Chinese General Social Survey, China’s national and comprehensive large-scale social survey project, are used to empirically investigate the influences of individual-level cultural capital (values of benevolence) and contextual-level cultural capital (cultural climate of benevolence) on individual volunteering. In terms of individual-level cultural capital, membership in the Chinese Communist Party (China’s ruling party), belief in social justice, and belief in social trust have significant positive relationships with individual volunteering. In terms of contextual-level cultural capital, the religious climate and justice climate in a province have significant positive effects on individual volunteering.

A school rampage threatens beliefs in justice: A longitudinal study of the belief in a just world among Chinese adolescents.

The current study examined whether and how severe injustice such as a school attack threatens the belief in a just world (BJW). We collected longitudinal data on the BJW from adolescents in China who witnessed random school attacks on the news (N=227). Change analyses provided evidence that the BJW increased after witnessing severe injustice. Furthermore, we tested for moderating effects of buffer variables, such as life satisfaction and perceived social support, on change in the BJW. Findings showed that these variables buffered the threat to the BJW after observing unfairness. We discuss these results in the context of justice motive theory and suggest implications for future research and practical implications.

Bayes factor testing of equality and order constraints on measures of association in social research

Measures of association play a central role in the social sciences to quantify the strength of a linear relationship between the variables of interest. In many applications researchers can translate scientific expectations to hypotheses with equality and/or order constraints on these measures of association. In this paper a Bayes factor test is proposed for testing multiple hypotheses with constraints on the measures of association between ordinal and/or continuous variables, possibly after correcting for certain covariates. This test can be used to obtain a direct answer to the research question how much evidence there is in the data for a social science theory relative to competing theories. The stand-alone software package ‘BCT’ allows users to apply the methodology in an easy manner. The methodology will also be available in the R package ‘BFpack’. An empirical application from leisure studies about the associations between life, leisure and relationship satisfaction and an application about the differences about egalitarian justice beliefs across countries are used to illustrate the methodology.

Judicial reforms in Ukraine: polishing procedures and their systemic role

Using a documentary methodology close to the dialectical method, the objective of the article is to analyze the judicial reforms in Ukraine. Citizen belief in peace, justice and strong institutions is a challenge not only for Eastern Europe, where trust in state bodies has always been low. Meanwhile, the ongoing reforms of the judiciary aim to achieve a significant result using specific methods such as: the purging of judges. After the so-called “revolution of dignity” forceful discussions began on the purification process in Ukraine. For the first time, this question was raised in the early 90s of the last century. Unfortunately, the relevant legislative projects did not even reach the congress of Ukraine. It is concluded that Ukraine is currently experiencing its third attempt to initiate a judicial purge process. Unlike the first two, the third is apparently more productive. This is since a special law was passed, and the "government purification" procedure was started. finally, questions such as what is lustration and in what types does it manifest itself are discussed? How is this phenomenon related to the processes of systemic transformation?

The populist hotbed: How political attitudes, resentment, and justice beliefs predict both exposure to and avoidance of specific populist news features in the United States.

A politics of resentment has shaped a low-dialogue political environment in the United States, feeding into populism, and characterized by perceived distributive injustice, detachment between politicians and “the people”, and political polarization. In this political environment, independent of editorial lines, news can spread based on populist content features and drive the political divide even further. However, we still do not understand well, how the forces of political disconnect as well as potentially unifying elements such as political knowledge and the willingness to connect with the other (political) side predict audience interest in populist news featuring people-centrism, anti-elitism, restoring popular sovereignty, and the exclusion of others. To better understand what drives (dis-)interest in populist news features, we combined self-report data from a non-student US sample (N = 440) on political attitudes with unobtrusively measured data on their selective exposure to populist news. We analyzed the data using zero-inflated negative binomial regression models, in which we simultaneously modeled selective exposure to and avoidance of populist news. The findings indicate that especially the will to connect with others explained exposure to news about anti-elitism, especially among Democrats, while Republicans’ news avoidance seems to be specifically geared toward people-centrism. Populist communication features promoting “us” vs. “them” dichotomies seem to not automatically resonate with the views of resentful voters and their motivated reasoning.

Investigating Relationship Between Democratic Attitudes and Social Justice Beliefs of Pre-Service Teachers

The number of studies that evaluate and discuss the concepts of democracy and social justice in Turkey from the perspective teacher training, education policies and practices is extremely limited. Thus, the present study attempts to determine democratic attitudes and social justice beliefs of pre-service teachers and whether these variables differ based on gender, age, family income level, and parental education level variables. The present study also aims to test the relation between the democratic attitudes and social justice beliefs of pre-service teachers using structural equation model. 483 pre-service teachers were included in the study sample. According to the study findings, it was concluded that democratic attitudes and social justice beliefs of pre-service teachers are medium level and these variables does not differ based on demographic variables. It was also identified that the democratic attitudes of pre-service teachers are significant determinant of their social justice beliefs. The concepts of democracy and social justice were discussed in depth as regards teacher education policies, programs and practices, and recommendations are provided for future implications.

Personal Justice Beliefs, Perceived Discrimination, and Carotid Intima-media Thickness in Sexual Minority Young Adults

Personal Justice Beliefs, Perceived Discrimination, and Carotid Intima-media Thickness in Sexual Minority Young Adults

Justice beliefs buffer against perceived barriers to colorectal cancer screening among African Americans

Objectives African Americans develop and die from colorectal cancer (CRC) more than any other racial group in the United States. Perceived barriers to screening (e.g. embarrassment and financial costs) likely exacerbate these disparities. Identifying psychological factors that can reduce the impact of perceived barriers and encourage CRC screening is therefore critical. This study explored whether believing the world is fairer for oneself than in general (personal justice ascendancy) would moderate the impact that perceived barriers have on receptivity to CRC screening. Method Four-hundred fifty-seven screening eligible African Americans completed measures of beliefs about justice for self and others, as well as perceived barriers to CRC screening. Participants also completed theory of planned behaviour (TPB) measures of screening receptivity (attitudes, norms, perceived behavioural control and intentions). Results Perceived barriers and justice beliefs interacted to predict perceived behavioural control over screening. Perceived barriers were associated with less perceived behavioural control only when personal justice beliefs were low. In turn, perceived behavioural control predicted stronger intentions to obtain CRC screening. Conclusions Interactive effects with perceived barriers highlight that strong personal justice beliefs play an important role in CRC screening and could aid in addressing CRC screening disparities among African Americans.

Including Social Housing Residents in the Energy Transition: A Mixed-Method Case Study on Residents' Beliefs, Attitudes, and Motivation Toward Sustainable Energy Use in a Zero-Energy Building Renovation in the Netherlands

Reducing household energy use in social housing buildings can substantially contribute to mitigating global climate change. While municipalities and social housing corporations are willing to invest in sustainable renovations and innovations, social housing residents' inclusion in the sustainable energy transition lags behind. This pilot study explored social housing residents' attitudes toward sustainability and sustainable renovation of their apartment building, as well as (factors underlying) their motivation toward two specific sustainable behaviors. Semi-structured interviews, containing both open- and close- ended questions, were conducted with 20 residents of one social housing building that was due for renovations. Results showed that respondents were concerned about climate change, including environmental justice beliefs, typically already engaged in various sustainable behaviors, and were motivated to add sustainable behaviors to their repertoire after the renovation. Yet, perceived social norms were not always supportive of behaving sustainably and respondents sometimes failed to recognize the sustainable value of these behaviors. Furthermore, while respondents were more positive than negative about the sustainable renovation, they nevertheless listed many concerns and problems regarding the renovation process, including procedural justice concerns. This small-scale study provided important insights into barriers and facilitators of the sustainable energy transition among social housing residents, who are at risk of lagging behind in the sustainable urban energy transition. Findings underline the importance of including residents in the sustainable renovation process through engagement, communication, and co-creation.

System justification in communication: a study of imagined dialogue receptivity

ABSTRACT According to system justification theory, system-threatening messages decrease the legitimacy of the status quo. Thus, individuals who endorse system justice beliefs will employ a variety of system justification behaviors when encountering such messages. In this study, we hypothesized that such behaviors include resisting dialogue with an interlocuter who propounds a system-threatening message. To test this, a sample of MTurk respondents was randomly assigned to listen to one genuine testimony of an African-American male (either system-threatening or neutral in content) and then completed a nine-item measure of imagined dialogue receptivity. Results demonstrated that participants with above-average justice beliefs reported less dialogue receptivity toward the speaker with system-threatening, compared to neutral, testimony. We interpret these findings to indicate that system justification does indeed play a significant role in people’s attitudes toward communication.

African American Activism: The Predictive Role of Race Related Stress, Racial Identity, and Social Justice Beliefs

Historically, African American activism has played a pivotal role in advancing social change in the United States. As such, there is an interest in examining possible factors that may engender activism among African Americans. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to extend research by Szymanski and Lewis (2015), which explored potential predictors of activism among African Americans. With a sample of 458 African American undergraduates, race-related stress, racial identity dimensions, and social justice variables were examined. A four-stage, multiple linear hierarchical regression model and two multiple mediation bootstrap analyses were employed. Race-related stress and racial identity attitudes significantly and uniquely predicted involvement in African American activism, complementing existing literature. Beyond that, social justice beliefs predicted African American activism over and above racial identity and race-related stress. More specifically, social justice subjective norms (i.e., social influence) was the most important predictor of activism for African American undergraduates. Implications for social justice development within institutions of higher education are discussed.

The Neurogenetics of Racial Injustice: Oxytocin Receptor (OXTR) Gene rs53576 is ASSOCIATED with Perceived Discrimination and Other-Oriented Justice Beliefs in African Americans

According to the social salience hypothesis, the neuropeptide oxytocin boosts attunement to both positive and negative social cues, such that the effects of oxytocin on social beliefs and behavior are highly dependent on context. Among underserved racial minorities, oxytocin might enhance sensitivity to racial injustice. To test this hypothesis, we examined whether the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) rs53576 polymorphism affects individual differences in both perceived racial discrimination and beliefs about justice in an underserved racial minority. Healthy African Americans (n = 118) provided bloodspot samples that were assayed for the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs53576. Participants also completed individual differences measures of perceived racial discrimination and beliefs about justice for self and others. Consistent with the social salience hypothesis, individuals with greater potential oxytocin receptivity (G/G genotype) reported greater perceived discrimination than individuals with lower potential oxytocin receptivity (non-G/G genotype; p = .009). Also consistent, G/G individuals had stronger other-oriented beliefs about justice than non-GG individuals (p = .085). Path analysis supported that perceived discrimination mediated the connection from the G/G genotype to stronger other-oriented procedural justice beliefs, suggesting that justice beliefs among African Americans might partly reflect evaluations of discriminatory experiences that stem from oxytocin receptivity.

Confirmatory Factor and Smallest Space Analyses on the Belief in a Just World Scale

A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used on the Belief in a Just World Scale (BJW; Lucas, Zhdanova & Alexander in J Individ Diff 32:14–25, 2011) to test the replicability of its four-scale structure. Additionally, Guttman’s Smallest Space Analysis (SSA) was used to test the presence of two facets with each consisting of two elements: Type of Justice (Distributive and Procedural) and Locus of Attributions (Justice Beliefs for Self and Justice Beliefs for Others) in the BJW scale. Participants (n = 301) were university students and community members (recruited through local church and social media). The CFA revealed marginally acceptable support for the four-factor structure of the BJW. As hypothesized, the SSA provided evidence for the presence of two facets with two elements each as stated above. Consistent with earlier findings of Lucas et al. (J Individ Diff 32:14–25, 2011) and Lucas et al. (Political Psychol 35:775–793, 2014), the BJW subscales had positive significant correlations with each other and evidenced strong internal consistency reliabilities.

Fairness and forgiveness: Effects of priming justice depend on justice beliefs

Thinking about justice can enhance or impede forgiveness of others. In this study, we show that these effects crucially depend on tendencies to believe in justice. We assessed beliefs about distributive and procedural justice for self and others among university students from the Midwestern United States. We then primed participants to think about distributive or procedural justice, either for self or others. We measured general forgiveness attitudes, as well as motivations to forgive a past transgression. Among participants who strongly believed in distributive justice for others, forgiveness was attenuated by thinking about distributive justice for others (congruence-inhibition), but accentuated by thinking about distributive justice for self, or procedural justice for others (incongruence-facilitation). Among participants who strongly believed in procedural justice for others, forgiveness was accentuated by thinking about procedural justice for self or distributive justice for others (incongruence-facilitation). Results highlight contextualized rather than rote effects of justice on forgiveness.