Behavioural Regulation In Exercise Questionnaire Research Articles

The Relationship between Levels of Physical Activity and Academic Achievement among Medical and Health Sciences Students at Cyberjaya University College of Medical Sciences.

BackgroundThis study aimed to explore the prevalence of physical activity among medical and health sciences students at Cyberjaya University College of Medical Sciences (CUCMS) and to determine the relationship of their physical activity level with their academic achievement and self-determination level.MethodsAn analytical cross-sectional study was conducted among 244 Medical and Health Sciences undergraduate students at CUCMS from January to April 2017 using self-administered short-form version of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ-SF) and the third version of the Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire (BREQ-3). Multiple regression models were fitted using SPSS version 20 to examine the relationships between study variables.ResultsHalf of the male students (51.7%) were in the health-enhancing physical activity (HEPA) group, as compared to only 24.7% of females. The odds of having a good grade point average was twice as high among HEPA active students (odds ratio [OR] = 1.89, 95% CI [1.09, 3.27], P = 0.023) than among non-HEPA active students. Further, the odds of being HEPA active was higher for males (OR = 3.16, 95% CI [1.61, 6.14], P < 0.01) than for females and higher for overweight students than for normal weight students (OR = 2.58, 95% CI [1.24, 5.57], P = 0.017). The odds of being HEPA active was 1.79 times higher for each unit increase in the integrated regulation score (OR = 1.79, 95% CI [1.14, 2.91], P = 0.020).ConclusionThe prevalence of physical inactivity was higher among females than males. This study also confirmed a significant association between physical activity level and academic achievement. HEPA active students performed better academically than those who were non-HEPA active.

An integrative perspective of validating a simplified Chinese version behavioral regulation in exercise questionnaire-2

ABSTRACTThe study aims to examine psychometric property, measurement invariance, and latent mean difference of a Chinese version instrument of the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire −2 (C-BREQ-2), which originally includes five constructs. The study also examined the relationship between C-BREQ-2and participants’ weekly moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Participants were middle and high school students recruited from Shanghai, China. The final sample (N = 437, 49% for boys) was randomly split into two subsamples, where the first subsample (N = 208) was used for exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and the second subsample (N = 229) for confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Measurement invariance and latent mean difference across gender was examined. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was utilized to explore how different motivation types relate to adolescents’ weekly MVPA. Results showed that the revised 14-item, three-factor model is invariant at both configural, full metric, and full scalar levels across genders. The following latent mean comparison revealed that boys perceived higher introjected regulation than girls. Finally, only introjected regulation significantly and positively related to adolescents’ MVPA.

Exercise self-efficacy correlates in people with psychosis

Despite the recognition of the importance of exercise self-efficacy in exercise adoption and maintenance, previous investigations on exercise self-efficacy in people with psychosis is scarce. The present study aimed to (1) explore if exercise self-efficacy differed between stages of behavior change in Ugandan outpatients with psychosis, and (2) assess sociodemographic, clinical and motivational correlates of exercise self-efficacy. In total, 48 patients (24 women) completed the Exercise Self-Efficacy Scale (ESES), the Patient-centered Assessment and Counseling for Exercise questionnaire, the Brief Symptoms Inventory-18 (BSI-18), and questions pertaining to intrinsic motivation in the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-2. Additionally, participants were asked about their exercise behavior in the past 7 days and screened for cardio-metabolic risk factors. Higher ESES-scores were observed in those in the maintenance (n = 17) versus those in the pre-action stage (n = 17) of behavior change. Higher ESES-scores were also significantly associated with lower BSI-18 somatization and higher intrinsic motivation scores. Our data indicated that health care professionals should assist patients with psychosis in interpreting physiological states during exercise. Future research should explore whether bolstering such sources of information might directly or indirectly effect exercise self-efficacy.

Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire in people with schizophrenia: construct validity of the Portuguese versions

Purpose: People with schizophrenia have low physical activity levels that can be explained by the restriction in motivation. The Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-2 is a 19-item scale commonly used to assess five different motivational subtypes for physical activity. However, there are limited psychometric analyses of this version in the schizophrenia context. Moreover, there is a lack of information related to the psychometric properties of version 3 of this questionnaire, with 24 items and six different motivational subtypes. The aim of this study was to examine the construct validity of both Portuguese versions in people with schizophrenia.Methods: A total of 118 persons with schizophrenia were included (30 women). Cronbach’s alpha was used for internal consistency, Pearson’s correlation for the retained motivation-types, confirmatory factor analysis for the structural validity of version 2 and exploratory factor analysis for the factor structure of version 3.Results and conclusions: Analyses of version 2 provided an adequate fit index for the structure of the five factors. Exploratory analyses suggested retaining 2 factors of version 3. The results of this study suggest that version 3 was an appropriate measure to assess controlled and autonomous motivation for physical activity in people with schizophrenia and support its use in clinical practice and research.Implications for RehabilitationThis study supports the need to identify the reasons why people with schizophrenia practice physical activity. For that purpose, it is important to use valid and cost-effective instruments.The Portuguese version of BREQ-2 confirmed a 5-factor model and showed adequate fit for the application in people with schizophrenia. However, the incremental indices values were lower than expected.The Portuguese version of BREQ-3 showed acceptable psychometric properties to assess controlled and autonomous motivation for physical activity in people with schizophrenia.

The Impact of Choice on Exercise Motivation and Physical Activity in College Students

Background: While research suggests that college courses contribute to significant health benefits, there is limited research on the effectiveness of these courses in increasing motivation and lifetime PA habits of college students.Aim: The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of choice in a conceptually-based college health and wellness course on exercise motivation and physical activity of undergraduate students.Method: Participants included undergraduate students (N = 81) enrolled in a health and wellness course at a four-year liberal arts university located in the mid-Atlantic region of the U.S. Quantitative data from the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire and the Leisure Time in Exercise Questionnaire were collected over three time points from two groups (choice and non-choice). Qualitative data from semistructured interviews with course instructors (N = 4) and open-ended questions were also collected.Results: There was a significant increase in intrinsic regulation F(2, 158) = 10.13, p = .00, ηp2 =.114; identified regulation F(2, 158) = 7.35, p = .001, ηp2= .085; introjected regulation F(2, 158) = 6.61, p = .002, ηp2= .077; and PA F(2, 158) = 5.63, p = .004, ηp2 = .067 over time. No significant differences were found between groups.Conclusion: While there was no significant difference between instruction type, instructors and participants suggested that choice was the preferred method for adult learners.

Exploring Prostate Cancer Survivors’ Exercise Motivation, Facilitators And Barriers Following Participation In The TrueNTH Program

The TrueNTH Lifestyle Management program is an international program aimed to improve the survivorship and wellness of men with prostate cancer. As part of the national network, an initial 12-week exercise program, 3 days per week, was carried out at a university-based location in Edmonton Canada. PURPOSE: To better understand the motivation, facilitators and barriers to exercise following participation in the TrueNTH exercise program. METHODS: An optional post-program satisfaction questionnaire was administered and a focus group session conducted with 16 of the 22 program participants (mean age: 65.5 years). Quantitative data from the patient satisfaction questionnaire were analyzed descriptively and qualitative data from the focus group were used to clarify and further describe quantitative results. RESULTS: Main findings included high satisfaction with the program (100%) and mean improvements in 8 repetition maximum strength of 8.5 lbs for bench press and 31.6 lbs for the leg press. Results from the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire (Version 3) showed high scores for intrinsic (3.28) and identified integration (3.25), and low scores for amotivation (0.083) and external regulation (1.18). Qualitatively participants reported benefits for body image, muscular strength as well as psychosocial wellbeing. Facilitators of exercise included supervised exercise, social support of other prostate cancer survivors, and a positive exercise environment. Survivors reported feeling “safe” and “at home” at the centre despite incontinence, use of a catheter, and issues with body image. Barriers included limited options for class times and transportation issues. CONCLUSION: Prostate survivors taking part in the TrueNTH program were highly motivated, enjoyed, and valued the benefits of the exercise program. This examination of site-specific exercise facilitators and barriers allows for adaptation of programming to the local context.

An Integrative Perspective of Validating a Simplified Chinese Version Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-2

An Integrative Perspective of Validating a Simplified Chinese Version Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-2

Is autonomous motivation the key to maintaining an active lifestyle in first-episode psychosis?

Physical activity has the potential to improve the health of patients with first-episode psychosis (FEP), yet many patients with FEP remain inactive. Exploring the theoretical basis of the motivational processes linked to the adoption and maintenance of physical activity behaviours in FEP patients can assist with the design and delivery of physical activity interventions. Within the self-determination theory and the transtheoretical model (stages of change) frameworks, we investigated motives for physical activity adoption and maintenance in FEP. Overall 56 FEP patients (20♀) (24 ± 4 years) completed the Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire 2 to assess exercise motives, and the Patient-Centred Assessment and Counselling for Exercise to determine stage of change. Gender and setting differences in motives for physical activity were compared with unpaired t-tests. The relationship between motives for physical activity and stage of change was investigated using anova with post-hoc Scheffe tests. No significant differences were found according to gender and setting. Multivariate analyses found significantly higher levels of amotivation and lower levels of autonomous motivation in the earlier stages of change. Our results suggest that in FEP patients, autonomous regulations may play an important role in the adoption and maintenance of physical activity behaviours. The study provides a platform for future research to investigate the importance of autonomous motivation within physical activity interventions for this population.

Autonomous motivation is associated with the maintenance stage of behaviour change in people with affective disorders

The present study examined whether in people with affective disorders motives for adopting and maintaining physical activity recommendations (as formulated by the self-determination theory) differed across the stages of behaviour change (identified by the transtheoretical model). A total of 165 (105♀) persons (45.6±14.2years) with affective disorders [major depressive disorder (n=96) or bipolar disorder (n=69)] completed the Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-2 and the Patient-centred Assessment and Counselling for Exercise questionnaire. Discriminant and multivariate analyses demonstrated that persons with affective disorders at the early stages of change have less autonomous and more controlled physical activity motives than those at the later stages. Our results suggest that autonomous motivation may have an important role to play in the maintenance of health recommendations in persons with affective disorders. Longitudinal and intervention studies should be designed in people with affective disorders to identify the causal pathways between motives for maintaining health recommendations, effective changes in health behaviour and physical and mental health outcomes.

Relationships Among Goal Contents, Exercise Motivations, Physical Activity, and Aerobic Fitness in University Physical Education Courses.

The current research examined the relationships among exercise goal contents, behavioral regulation, physical activity, and aerobic fitness within the context of eight-week university physical education courses. Participants were undergraduate students (M age = 20.2 year, SD = 2.3) enrolled in activity courses (N = 461) during the 2010 Fall semester. At pretest, participants completed a demographic survey, Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire and the Goal Contents in Exercise Questionnaire. At eight-week posttest, participants completed the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Adults and the PACER aerobic fitness test. Relative intrinsic goal content was found to predict physical activity indirectly and aerobic fitness via behavioral regulation. Specific goal contents related to health management and skill development were found to predict physical activity and aerobic fitness via a fully mediated path through identified and intrinsic regulation. Results supported the efficacy of goal contents and self-determination theory in describing physical activity behavior and fitness. Examining specific types of goal contents and behavioral regulations revealed relationships that were masked by the utilization of omnibus scoring protocols.

Adopting and maintaining physical activity behaviour in people with severe mental illness: The importance of autonomous motivation

BackgroundPhysiotherapy can improve the health of people with serious mental illness (SMI) but many are inactive. Adopting theoretically-based evidence considering the motivational processes linked to the adoption and maintenance of an active lifestyle can assist physiotherapists in facilitating lifestyle changes in people with SMI.PurposeWithin the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and the Trans-Theoretical Model (TTM) (stages of change) frameworks, we investigated differences in motives for physical activity between different diagnostic SMI groups.MethodsAll participants with SMI from 15 different centers completed the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire 2 (BREQ-2), the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) and the Patient-centered Assessment and Counseling for Exercise (PACE) questionnaire.ResultsOverall 294 persons with SMI (190♀) (43.6 ± 13.6years) agreed to participate. People with affective disorders had higher levels of introjected regulations than people with schizophrenia. No significant differences were found for other motivational regulations. Moreover, no significant differences were found according to gender, setting and educational level. Multivariate analyses showed significantly higher levels of amotivation and external regulations and lower levels of identified and intrinsic regulations in the earlier stages of change. Strongest correlations with the IPAQ were found for motivational regulations towards walking.ConclusionsOur results suggest that in all people with SMI the level of identified and intrinsic motivation may play an important role in the adoption and maintenance of health promoting behaviours.ImplicationsThe study provides a platform for future research to investigate the relationships between autonomy support, motivational regulations and physical and mental health variables within physiotherapy interventions for this population.Disclosure of interestThe author has not supplied his declaration of competing interest.

I sit because I have fun when I do so! Using self-determination theory to understand sedentary behavior motivation among university students and staff

ABSTRACTObjectives. Evidence exists that independently of physical activity, a dose–response relationship exists between sedentary time and adverse health outcomes. However, little is known about motivations underlying sedentary behavior. The purpose of this study was to (i) examine the factor structure and composition of sedentary-derived autonomous (identified and intrinsic) and controlled (external and introjected) motives within an Organismic Integration Theory (OIT) framework and (ii) determine whether these motivational constructs are related with overall sitting time as well as sitting for work/school and recreation/leisure on weekdays and weekends. Method. University students or staff (n = 571) completed an Internet-based survey within a cross-sectional design. After completing a modified Sedentary Behavior Questionnaire, participants were randomized to one of five groups (general, weekday work/school, weekday recreation/leisure, weekend work/school, weekend recreation/leisure) and completed a sedentary-derived 15-item modified Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire. Results. Factor analysis findings support the tenability of a four-factor model for weekday work/school, weekend work/school, and weekend leisure/recreation sedentary behavior and a three-factor model for general and weekday leisure/recreation behavior. Regression analyses showed the motivational constructs explained a significant amount of sedentary behavior variance for weekend work/school (10%), weekend leisure/recreation (9%), weekday work/school (4%), and weekday leisure/recreation (3%). General sedentary behavior was unrelated with the motivational constructs. In general, autonomous motives underlied leisure/recreational sitting while controlled motives were more strongly associated with work/school behavior. Conclusions. Our findings support the hypothesis that motivational constructs grounded in OIT have the potential to further our understanding of sedentary behavior.

Affectivity Profiling in Relation to Exercise: Six-months Exercise Frequency, Motivation, and Basic Psychological Needs Fulfilment

Background: In the past 10 years, several studies using the affective profiles model (i.e., combinations of high/low positive/negative affect) show that individuals with high positive affect profiles (i.e., self-fulfilling and high affective) report greater propensity to exercise compared to individuals with low positive affect profiles (i.e., selfdestructive and low affective). Nevertheless, these studies have not used objective measures of exercise frequency. Objective: We investigated differences in exercise frequency six months back in time, motivation, basic psychological needs fulfillment, and if the effect of motivation and needs on training frequency was moderated by type of profile. Method: 143 individuals at a training facility in the South of Sweden responded to the Positive Affect Negative Affect Schedule, the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire 2, the Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale, and provided their membership number for the electronic tracking of their training frequency. Results: Although there were no differences in exercise frequency, positive affect was negatively associated to external regulation and positively to autonomy, competence, and relatedness per se; both when negative affect was low or high. All other variables presented complex dynamic associations to affectivity. Training frequency was positively related to introjected regulation and competence among individuals with a self-destructive profile and negatively to relatedness among those with a high affective profile. Conclusion: Future studies are needed in order to investigate objective measures of exercise frequency in relation to affectivity profiling. Importantly, the model allows the comparison of people who differ in one affectivity dimensions while keeping the other constant.

Perceived social pressures and the internalization of the mesomorphic ideal: The role of drive for muscularity and autonomy in physically active men

We examined if there were both direct and indirect relationships (via the drive for muscularity) between the perceived pressure to be muscular and internalization of the mesomorphic ideal, and if autonomy moderates these relationships in physically active men. A sample of 330 men, who were undergraduate students studying sport, completed the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-2, the Mesomorphic Ideal Internalization subscale of the revised male version Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Questionnaire, the Perceived Sociocultural Pressure Scale-Modified, and the Drive for Muscularity Scale Attitudes subscale. Perceived pressure predicted internalization directly, and indirectly through the drive for muscularity. The direct relationship between pressure and internalization was weaker under higher levels of autonomy. The indirect path, via drive for muscularity, was stronger under higher levels of autonomy. These results provide insights into why men vary in the degree to which they internalize pressure to develop a mesomorphic ideal, supporting further examination of autonomy.

Assessing Self-Determined Work Motivation in People with Severe Mental Illness: A Factor-Analytic Approach

Background: Self-determination theory (SDT) has increasingly been used as a theoretical framework for evaluating key elements of the recovery paradigm in rehabilitation and mental health services research and policy-making for people living with severe mental illnesses.Purpose: The purpose of this study was to validate the Behavioral Regulation in Work Questionnaire (BRWQ), an adaptation of the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-2, as a measure of self-determined work motivation for use in psychiatric rehabilitation settings.Methods: One hundred and twenty-four individuals with severe mental illness were recruited from eight Clubhouse programmes in Hawaii. Factorial validity of the BRWQ was evaluated using exploratory factor analysis.Findings: Principal components analysis of the BRWQ yielded four factors (amotivation, external regulation, introjection and autonomous motivation). The autonomous motivation factor was found to be significantly related to other SDT constructs, including competency, relatedness, outcome expectancy and vocational rehabilitation engagement.Conclusions: The BRWQ is a psychometrically sound SDT measure for assessing self-determined work motivation and could contribute to the use of self-determination as a paradigm for improving recovery and employment outcomes of people with severe mental illness in rehabilitation settings.

Adopting and maintaining physical activity behaviours in people with severe mental illness: The importance of autonomous motivation

ObjectivePhysical activity can improve the health of people with serious mental illness (SMI) but many are inactive. Adopting theoretically-based research considering the motivational processes linked to the adoption and maintenance of an active lifestyle between different diagnostic groups of people with SMI can assist in understanding physical activity in this group. Within the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and the Trans-Theoretical Model (TTM) (stages of change) frameworks, we investigated differences in motives for physical activity between different diagnostic groups. MethodsAll participants completed the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire 2 (BREQ-2), the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) and the Patient-centered Assessment and Counseling for Exercise (PACE) questionnaire. ResultsOverall 294 persons with SMI (190♀) (43.6±13.6years) agreed to participate. People with affective disorders had higher levels of introjected regulations than people with schizophrenia. No significant differences were found for other motivational regulations. Moreover, no significant differences were found according to gender, setting and educational level. Multivariate analyses showed significantly higher levels of amotivation and external regulations and lower levels of identified and intrinsic regulations in the earlier stages of change. Strongest correlations with the IPAQ were found for motivational regulations towards walking. ConclusionsOur results suggest that in all people with SMI the level of identified and intrinsic motivation may play an important role in the adoption and maintenance of health promoting behaviours. The study provides a platform for future research to investigate the relationships between autonomy support, motivational regulations and physical and mental health variables within lifestyle interventions for this population.

Need satisfaction, motivational regulations and exercise: moderation and mediation effects.

BackgroundBased on the Self-determination theory process model, this study aimed to explore relationships between the latent constructs of psychological need satisfaction, autonomous motivation and exercise behaviour; the mediational role of autonomous motivation in the association of psychological need satisfaction with exercise behaviour; as well as gender and age differences in the aforementioned associations.MethodsAdult active members of an Internet-based exercise program (n = 1091) between 18 and 78 years of age completed a test battery on motivational aspects based on Self-determination theory. The Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale and the Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-2 were used to measure need satisfaction and type of motivation and the Leisure Time Exercise Questionnaire to measure self-reported exercise.ResultsNeed satisfaction predicted autonomous motivation, which in turn predicted exercise, especially for women. Autonomous motivation was found to mediate the association between need satisfaction and exercise. Age and gender moderated several of the paths in the model linking need satisfaction with motivation and exercise.ConclusionThe results demonstrated gender and age differences in the proposed sequential mechanisms between autonomous motivation and exercise in the process model. This study thus highlights a potential value in considering moderating factors and the need to further examine the underlying mechanisms between needs, autonomous motivation, and exercise behaviour.

Motivational and evolutionary aspects of a physical exercise training program: a longitudinal study.

Several studies have indicated that motivational level and prior expectations influence one’s commitment to physical activity. Moreover, these aspects are not properly described in terms of proximal (SDT, Self Determination Theory) and distal (evolutionary) explanations in the literature. This paper aims to verify if level of motivation (BREQ-2, Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-2) and expectations regarding regular physical exercise (IMPRAF-54) before starting a 1-year exercise program could determine likelihood of completion. Ninety-four volunteers (53 women) included a completed protocol group (CPG; n = 21) and drop-out group (n = 73). The IMPRAF-54 scale was used to assess six different expectations associated with physical activity, and the BREQ-2 inventory was used to assess the level of motivation in five steps (from amotivation to intrinsic motivation). Both questionnaires were assessed before starting a regular exercise program. The CPG group presented higher sociability and lower pleasure scores according to IMPRAF-54 domains. A logistic regression analysis showed that a one-point increment on sociability score increased the chance of completing the program by 10%, and the same one-point increment on pleasure score reduced the chance of completing the protocol by 16%. ROC curves were also calculated to establish IMPRAF-54 cutoffs for adherence (Sociability – 18.5 points – 81% sensibility/50% specificity) and dropout (Pleasure – 25.5 points – 86% sensibility/20% specificity) of the exercise protocol. Our results indicate that an expectation of social interaction was a positive factor in predicting adherence to exercise. Grounded in SDT and its innate needs (competence, autonomy, relatedness), physical exercise is not an end; it is a means to achieve autonomy and self-cohesion. The association of physical activity with social practices, as occurs in hunter-gathering groups, can engage people to be physically active and can provide better results in adherence exercise programs for the general population.

A Comparison between Self Myofascial Release and Static Stretching for Flexibility and Exercise Adherence

Because there is limited research on the long term effectiveness of self myofascial release (SMR) or foam rolling, static stretching (SS) remains the standard protocol used by clinicians and fitness professionals for increasing flexibility. No previous study has compared exercise adherence between SS and SMR. Since exercise adherence is low for home based flexibility programs, SMR should be investigated as a possible alternative independent exercise modality. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study is to compare the effectiveness and patient adherence between SMR and SS home based protocols. METHODS: Nineteen healthy volunteers (half with initial scores at or below the 20th percentile for the modified-sit-and-reach test) were divided into two groups (SMR and SS). Each group was instructed to perform 15 stretches (SMR or SS respectively) three times per week for four weeks. Subjects self-monitored their stretching and recorded the number of completed and partial sessions. Pre- and Post- flexibility measurements and Modified Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire 2 (BREQ-2) were recorded. An independent t-test was used to compare the total number of sessions completed by each group. Repeated measures ANOVAs were used to identify changes in flexibility and Pre-and Post- BREQ-2 survey responses. RESULTS: A significant timepoint difference (pre-to-post) was identified for the modified-sit-and-reach measurements (F1, 17 = 6.32, P < 0.05) but there was no difference between groups. No significant difference in number of sessions was found between groups (t = -1.593, P = 0.130). There were no changes (pre-to-post) or differences (SS to SMR) for BREQ-2 scores. CONCLUSION: The SS and the SMR groups saw similar improvements in flexibility after one month of self-monitored flexibility training. This study is the first to show that participants asked to perform SMR were equally as adherent as the SS group to their respective protocols. We found that there was no change in motivation (BREQ-2 score) in either group over the month of training. SMR is as effective and adhered to as well as SS but offers no additional flexibility benefits or adherence improvements compared to SS. Based on this study, clinicians should consider SMR an equivalent alternative to SS in otherwise healthy patients.

Could autonomous motivation hold the key to successfully implementing lifestyle changes in affective disorders? A multicentre cross sectional study

There is a need for theoretically-based research on the motivational processes linked to the adoption and maintenance of an active lifestyle in people with affective disorders. Within the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) framework, we investigated the SDT tenets in people with major depressive disorder or bipolar disorder by examining the factor structure of the Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-2 (BREQ-2) and by investigating associations between motivation, the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) and International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) scores. A total of 165 patients (105♀) (45.6±14.2 years) agreed to participate. An exploratory factor analysis demonstrated sufficient convergence with the original factor for amotivation, and external and introjected regulation. The items of identified and intrinsic regulation loaded on the same factor, which was labelled autonomous regulation. Significant correlations were found between the total IPAQ score and the subscales amotivation, external regulation, introjected regulation and autonomous regulation. The relative autonomy index (RAI) was associated with the PANAS scores. Differences in RAI were found between physically inactive and active participants. Our results suggest that in people with affective disorders the level of autonomous motivation may play an important role in the adoption and maintenance of health promoting behaviours.