Behavioral Diversity Research Articles

Genome of the parasitoid wasp Dinocampus coccinellae reveals extensive duplications, accelerated evolution, and independent origins of thelytokous parthenogeny and solitary behavior.

Dinocampus coccinellae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) is a generalist parasitoid wasp that parasitizes >50 species of predatory lady beetles (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), with thelytokous parthenogeny as its primary mode of reproduction. Here, we present the first high-quality genome of D. coccinellae using a combination of short- and long-read sequencing technologies, followed by assembly and scaffolding of chromosomal segments using Chicago + HiC technologies. We also present a first-pass ab initio and a reference-based genome annotation and resolve timings of divergence and evolution of (1) solitary behavior vs eusociality, (2) arrhenotokous vs thelytokous parthenogenesis, and (3) rates of gene loss and gain among Hymenopteran lineages. Our study finds (1) at least 2 independent origins of eusociality and solitary behavior among Hymenoptera, (2) 2 independent origins of thelytokous parthenogenesis from ancestral arrhenotoky, and (3) accelerated rates of gene duplications, loss, and gain along the lineages leading to D. coccinellae. Our work both affirms the ancient divergence of Braconid wasps from ancestral Hymenopterans and accelerated rates of evolution in response to adaptations to novel hosts, including polyDNA viral coevolution.

Stereoisomer effect on ferroelectric nematics: stabilization and phase behavior diversification

Stabilization and diversification of phase behaviors in ferroelectric nematics driven by a stereoisomer effect are observed, which in turn modulates the viscoelastic and ferroelectric properties.

ТИПИ І ПРИНЦИПИ ПОВЕДІНКИ ІНВЕСТОРІВ НА ФІНАНСОВИХ РИНКАХ В УМОВАХ ЦИФРОВОЇ ЕКОНОМІКИ

Effective involvement of all components of the investment space (investment activity, investment process, investment climate, investment attractiveness etc.), and the use of appropriate investment tools and levers depends on the behavior of existing investors and the results. A better understandingof the interests, motives and needs of the investor in the existing investment dimension will allow the study of various types of investment behavior and principles of its formation, which makes the chosen topic of scientific research relevant and timely. The purpose of the article is to study scientific and practical aspects of the types and principles of the investors’ behavior in financial markets in the conditions of the digital economy. Within this scientific research it was established the following: individual investors tend to take more risks (have a greater risk appetite) than the companies-investors; capital investments of the subject of the investment process depend on the available liquidity; capital investment of the company affect the level of providing consumers with goods and services. Therefore, the problem of choice, and the problem of making rational decision become the main subjects of the study of financial behavior.The main types of the investors’ behavior in the financial markets are studied, which include regulatory-limited, unlimited, and limited. It is established that the specified types of the investment behavior turn into styles and strategies characteristic of each investor.The main principles of behavior (rationality, alternatives, substitution, individualization, limitations, expectations, evaluation, adaptation, and divergence) that create the conditions, form behavioral patterns, determine the rules of the game in the market, establish norms and restrictions are identifiedand characterized.It is proved that principles can be based on habits or traditional norms, by which the investor’s behavior is automatically reproduced, without much thought. But in the conditions of the market economy and development of digitalization in all spheres of the activity, these principles act as the determinants ofbehavior, forcing a person to take them into account and consciously apply them every time.

Influence of different weather aspects on breeding performance, food supply and nest-space use in hoopoe offspring

In this study, we investigated the influence of different weather aspects on breeding performance, food supply and nest-space use in hoopoe offspring (Upupa epops). Camera recordings of 88 nests were used to examine how ambient environmental conditions influence food supply, offspring nest-space use and the trade-off nestlings face regarding the two mainly used locations in the nest. Therefore, we provide a comprehensive analysis involving different factors including weather parameters together with food provisioned to nestlings on different temporal scales to identify the factors having the most influence on nest-space use. We found that different breeding conditions significantly influenced how nestlings used the nest. During excessively humid weather, nestlings spent more time under the entrance hole when small food was delivered. However, nestlings supplied with large prey more often remained hidden in the distant area, despite the adverse weather situation. In all three aspects and temporal scales, our analysis confirmed that prey was the most important factor influencing offspring nest-space use, suggesting a crucial role of large insects for hoopoes. Finally, we found that long-term effects of weather affect overall food provisioned to nestlings and thus offspring behaviour. We provide evidence that parental feeding location and prey size, which are in turn influenced by weather conditions, are the most influential factors for nest-space use. This study expands our knowledge of parent–offspring communication and how environmental factors may lead to differential nest-space use, which may be regarded as the earliest form of habitat preference in birds.Significance statementNests are usually constrained in space but designed to protect offspring from the environment while giving them limited possibilities to express behavioural diversity. This is particularly true for bird nests, where nestlings are usually packed in close contact with one another and without much space for movement, except begging. Here we demonstrate that nest features, such as available nest space together with environmental conditions surrounding a nest, influence nestling strategies and behaviours, including social interactions between nest mates, which further leads to fitness consequences. Our results seem to be of great importance for habitat selection theory in birds, in particular regarding the early development of habitat preferences (imprinting) and use. On the other hand, the result may also have important implications for conservation issues given that nestling behaviour may be used as a determinant of environmental quality.

The theory of planned behaviour in exploring dietary diversity practices among mothers in informal settlements in Kenya

One of the leading causes of malnutrition, which contributes to morbidity and mortality in children, is lack of dietary diversity. Despite remarkable improvement in exclusive breastfeeding in Kenya, there are still poor dietary diversity practices among children aged 6-24 months. Limited studies have applied the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) to examine the factors that influence dietary diversity practices in informal settlements in Kenya. The objective of this qualitative study was to explore behavioral, normative, control beliefs, intention, and dietary diversity practices, based on the TPB. The study sites were Kibera in Nairobi, Manyatta A in Kisumu, and Kaptembwo in Nakuru. Participants were 64 mothers of children aged 6-24 months selected using purposive sampling. Nine focus groups, each comprising of 5-10 mothers were conducted and the data analyzed using thematic analysis. Using a focus group guide, based on the TPB, mothers described salient beliefs regarding their attitude, subjective norms and perceived control of dietary diversity. Analysis of the data showed that some mothers had intended to introduce solid foods at six months. However, barriers such as mother not feeding well, baby’s hunger, perceived insufficient breast milk production, and return to work led to earlier introduction of foods. Most mothers indicated their intention to give a variety of foods to their children but were hindered by barriers such as poverty/inadequate money, non-availability of food at home, and inadequate knowledge about complementary feeding. Friends, health professionals, fathers, neighbours and friends were cited as most salient referents that influenced the dietary diversity practices. The most frequently provided starchy foods were chappatis, mandazis, potatoes, rice, weetabix, porridge, and ugali. In conclusion, the results indicate that mothers had positive attitude towards dietary diversity. The ‘significant others’ who mostly influenced dietary diversity practices were health professionals, fathers, and friends. Future interventions need to target mothers' perceived child-feeding responsibilities, influence subjective norms, and increase parents' perceived control over child feeding.

Spawning strategies ofGalaxias gollumoidesMcDowall and Chadderton (Gollum galaxias) from wetland and stream habitats

AbstractGalaxias gollumoidesMcDowall and Chadderton occurs in contrasting hydrological environments across Southland and Stewart Island, New Zealand. Our study experimentally investigated intraspecific variation inG. gollumoidesfrom wetland and stream habitats, testing for phenotypic divergence in spawning substrate choice, and that spawning timing is influenced by the proximate hydrological and meteorological environments. Wetland and streamG. gollumoidesdisplayed intraspecific behavioural divergence, utilising contrasting spawning substrates across multiple tanks, even when held in common experimental conditions.Galaxias gollumoidesdisplayed intraspecific spawning timing differences with wetland‐sourcedG. gollumoidesspawning earlier than stream‐sourcedG. gollumoides. Spawning also occurred significantly more often during peaks of warmer mean daily water temperature and barometric pressure, than during colder temperature, low‐pressure periods. Interannual variation in initial spawning timing was also attributed to differences in water temperature. In combination, experimental evidence‐ and field‐based observations support our hypothesis thatG. gollumoidescan utilise available substrates in habitats of contrasting hydrology and structure, while spawning timing is controlled by changes in proximate environmental conditions. These characteristics may enhance a population's recruitment success and the species persistence in the fluctuating hydrological environments of ephemeral wetlands and tributary streams that were once likely widespread in Southland.

The Biology and Research History of the Solitary Wasp Genus Bembix (Hymenoptera: Bembicidae): A Brief Review

Abstract Wasps of the genus Bembix (Fabricius) have enjoyed over 300 years as subjects of interest to entomologists and ethologists due to their large size and repertoire of dramatic nesting behaviors. This research history began with these wasps as the focus of brief behavioral accounts, which developed over time to yield detailed studies of the habits of individual species, as well as comparative studies of behavior. This work has revealed that Bembix is behaviorally diverse, with most aspects of their nesting habits showing variation both within and between species. Ultimately, this research history has made Bembix one of the best-known groups of solitary aculeate wasps. At the same time, much work remains to be done on Bembix. While the genus' behavioral diversity is well-recognized, it has not nearly been fully characterized, with the majority of Bembix species remaining unstudied in the field. Furthermore, no phylogeny has ever been published for the genus, and its evolutionary and biogeographic history remains essentially unknown. Thus, this review presents an overview of historical and biological information on Bembix with the aim of stimulating further work on this behaviorally diverse genus.

Synthetic considerations on the origin and emergence of human language

Human (vocal-articulated) language may be regarded both as a structure and organ, and as an instrument and biosocial behaviour. Its foundation is material and motor, and its development procedural-historical. Examining the relationship between the initial moment (gesture) and the actual result (vocal-articulated language)—at the motor and neural levels—reveals that mental activities occur and develop as a result of the biological organism’s interactions with its natural and social environment. Therefore, language appears not as a consequence of a revolution or of an evolutionary jump, but as a result of organic and gradual developments occurring in a biosocial environment and having the same kind of premises. The many structures contributing to its appearance (osseous, muscular, nervous, genetic) were directed by social events generating behaviours whose exercise led to certain developments. Having achieved structural and behavioral diversification, and in so far as it could benefit evolution, such a development was exploited by the biological and social organism, such that—irrespective of space, time, or the aspects of a particular context—above a certain level of evolution, the various human communities spread throughout the globe exhibited the intrinsic tendency of developing this ability.

CROSS CULTURAL COMMUNICATION TO ACCOMODATE GENERATION GAP IN DISRUPTIVE ERA

This research described about how Cross-Cultural Communication contributes its influence on accommodating the generation gap to improve a social structure in Indonesia, especially on Disruptive Era. In accommodating the generation gap, the cross-cultural communication focus on the patterns of convergence and divergence of communication behaviors, particularly as they relate to the goals of the people for social approval, communication efficiency, and identity. This research was done in Bina Nusantara (BINUS) University, and used a descriptive qualitative method with constructivism paradigm, and coding to analyze the data. The results showed that accommodation in cross-cultural communication can improved the ability on problem-solving skills, collective decisions and can resolved the problem that arise from generation gap to make it become harmonious interactions. The lack of the role in providing information from generation to another generation usually based on the assumption that the other generation already knew the condition, situation and also the meaning behind it as well without any discussion and deeper communication further. Due to the changes in social structure, BINUS creating a cross cultural communication model to accommodate the generation gap in social structure: openness, and engagement, through (for example) creative furniture arrangemement in some classes. The result also shown that engagement between the students and the lecturer will be more powerful in creating values to have a better social condition. The people who willing to build the communication instead of assumed will be more successful in all aspects of cross-cultural communication.

Amphibian behavioral diversity offers insights into evolutionary neurobiology.

Recent studies have served to emphasize the unique placement of amphibians, composed of more than 8000 species, in the evolution of the brain. We provide an overview of the three amphibian orders and their respective ecologies, behaviors, and brain anatomy. Studies have probed the origins of independently evolved parental care strategies in frogs and the biophysical principles driving species-specific differences in courtship vocalization patterns. Amphibians are also important models for studying the central control of movement, especially in the context of the vertebrate origin of limb-based locomotion. By highlighting the versatility of amphibians, we hope to see a further adoption of anurans, urodeles, and gymnophionans as model systems for the evolution and neural basis of behavior across vertebrates.

Does genetic differentiation underlie behavioral divergence in response to migration barriers in sticklebacks? A common garden experiment

Water management measures in the 1970s in the Netherlands have produced a large number of “resident” populations of three-spined sticklebacks that are no longer able to migrate to the sea. This may be viewed as a replicated field experiment, allowing us to study how the resident populations are coping with human-induced barriers to migration. We have previously shown that residents are smaller, bolder, more exploratory, more active, and more aggressive and exhibited lower shoaling and lower migratory tendencies compared to their ancestral “migrant” counterparts. However, it is not clear if these differences in wild-caught residents and migrants reflect genetic differentiation, rather than different developmental conditions. To investigate this, we raised offspring of four crosses (migrant ♂ × migrant ♀, resident ♂ × resident ♀, migrant ♂ × resident ♀, resident ♂ × migrant ♀) under similar controlled conditions and tested for differences in morphology and behavior as adults. We found that lab-raised resident sticklebacks exhibited lower shoaling and migratory tendencies as compared to lab-raised migrants, retaining the differences in their wild-caught parents. This indicates genetic differentiation of these traits. For all other traits, the lab-raised sticklebacks of the various crosses did not differ significantly, suggesting that the earlier-found contrast between wild-caught fish reflects differences in their environment. Our study shows that barriers to migration can lead to rapid differentiation in behavioral tendencies over contemporary timescales (~ 50 generations) and that part of these differences reflects genetic differentiation.Significance statementMany organisms face changes to their habitats due to human activities. Much research is therefore dedicated to the question whether and how organisms are able to adapt to novel conditions. We address this question in three-spined sticklebacks, where water management measures cut off some populations, prohibiting their seasonal migration to the North Sea. In a previous study, we showed that wild-caught “resident” fish exhibited markedly different behavior than migrants. To disentangle whether these differences reflect genetic differentiation or differences in the conditions under which the wild-caught fish grew up, we conducted crosses, raising the F1 offspring under identical conditions. As their wild-caught parents, the F1 of resident × resident crosses exhibited lower migratory and shoaling tendencies than the F1 of migrant × migrant crosses, while the F1 of hybrid crosses were intermediate. This suggests that ~ 50 years of isolation are sufficient to induce behaviorally relevant genetic differentiation.

Habitat fragmentation induces rapid divergence of migratory and isolated sticklebacks

AbstractThe adaptive capacity of many organisms is seriously challenged by human-imposed environmental change, which currently happens at unprecedented rates and magnitudes. For migratory fish, habitat fragmentation is a major challenge that can compromise their survival and reproduction. Therefore, it is important to study if fish populations can adapt to such modifications of their habitat. Here, we study whether originally anadromous three-spined stickleback populations (Gasterosteus aculeatus; “migrants”) changed in behavior and morphology in response to human-induced isolation. We made use of a natural field-experiment, where the construction of pumping stations and sluices in the 1970s unintendedly created replicates of land-locked stickleback populations (“resident”) in the Netherlands. For two years, we systematically tested populations of residents and migrants for differences in morphology and behavioral traits (activity, aggressiveness, exploration, boldness, and shoaling) in lab-based assays. We detected differences between migrant and resident populations in virtually all phenotypic traits studied: compared with the ancestral migrants, residents were smaller in size, had fewer and smaller plates and were significantly more active, aggressive, exploratory and bolder, and shoaled less. Despite large ecological differences between 2018 and 2019, results were largely consistent across the two years. Our study shows that human-induced environmental change has led to the rapid and consistent morphological and behavioral divergence of stickleback populations in about 50 generations. Such changes may be adaptive but this remains to be tested.

A small, computationally flexible network produces the phenotypic diversity of song recognition in crickets.

How neural networks evolved to generate the diversity of species-specific communication signals is unknown. For receivers of the signals, one hypothesis is that novel recognition phenotypes arise from parameter variation in computationally flexible feature detection networks. We test this hypothesis in crickets, where males generate and females recognize the mating songs with a species-specific pulse pattern, by investigating whether the song recognition network in the cricket brain has the computational flexibility to recognize different temporal features. Using electrophysiological recordings from the network that recognizes crucial properties of the pulse pattern on the short timescale in the cricket Gryllus bimaculatus, we built a computational model that reproduces the neuronal and behavioral tuning of that species. An analysis of the model's parameter space reveals that the network can provide all recognition phenotypes for pulse duration and pause known in crickets and even other insects. Phenotypic diversity in the model is consistent with known preference types in crickets and other insects, and arises from computations that likely evolved to increase energy efficiency and robustness of pattern recognition. The model's parameter to phenotype mapping is degenerate - different network parameters can create similar changes in the phenotype - which likely supports evolutionary plasticity. Our study suggests that computationally flexible networks underlie the diverse pattern recognition phenotypes, and we reveal network properties that constrain and support behavioral diversity.

Wild guppies from populations exposed to higher predation risk exhibit greater vasotocin brain gene expression

AbstractIntraspecific variation in social behaviour is often observed among animal populations. Local predation risk can be a key driver of these differences, with populations that are exposed to greater threat typically showing greater aggregation and reduced intraspecific aggression. The Trinidadian guppy,Poecilia reticulata, is found in populations that vary dramatically in predation risk and show greater grouping and reduced agonism in high‐predation populations compared to low‐predation populations. The neurohormonal mechanisms that underpin these differences in behaviour across populations remain unknown and elucidating these mechanisms may help us to understand the evolution of behavioural diversity in this species. We predicted that guppies naturally exposed to higher predation risk would show greater expression of the isotocin system and reduced expression of the vasotocin system when compared to low‐predation fish, because these peptides are thought to promote gregariousness and aggressivity respectively. We collected guppies of both sexes from high‐ and low‐predation sites, replicated in two different Trinidadian rivers, and measured the brain gene expression of isotocin and vasotocin along with their central receptors. Contrary to our prediction, we found that high‐predation guppies showed greater expression of vasotocin, while we did not find evidence that the populations differed in isotocin expression, nor in the expression of the receptors. These results support the hypothesis that vasotocin may act as a neural substrate for social variation in fishes but call into question generalisations about its specific role across species.

Behavioural diversity as a potential welfare indicator for professionally managed chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): Exploring variations in calculating diversity using species-specific behaviours

AbstractBehavioural diversity may serve as a positive indicator of animal welfare that can be applied in long-term monitoring schemes in managed settings (eg zoos, laboratories, farms). Behavioural diversity is often higher when animals live in stimulating environments and experience positive events. Unfortunately, welfare researchers have not adopted consistent, standardised approaches to measuring behavioural diversity. The goal of this exploratory study was to utilise data from 41 adult chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) housed across 16 zoological institutions to examine various models of Shannon's Diversity Index. Specifically, we investigated the impact of: combining versus splitting behaviours, including only positive behaviours, including human interaction, and considering recipient behaviours. We evaluate how the inclusion or exclusion of different behaviours impacts the relationship of behavioural diversity with: (i) concentrations of faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (GCM), a common indicator of adrenal activity; (ii) concentrations of immunoglobulin-A (IgA), an indicator of immune function and potential indicator of positive welfare; and (iii) stereotypic behaviour, a validated indicator of poor welfare. Most indices had significant negative relationships with faecal GCM. Animals that express a variety of behaviours from their species-typical repertoire have lower average faecal GCM concentrations and are likely experiencing better welfare. We did not find significant relationships between the behavioural diversity indices and IgA concentrations. Two indices were inversely associated with stereotypic behaviour. Our findings provide additional support for using Shannon's Diversity Index to calculate behavioural diversity as a robust, valid measure of positive welfare. However, future publications must justify the process for including or excluding behaviours from calculations.

How is Western Lowland Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) Behavior and Physiology Impacted by 360 Degree Visitor Viewing Access?

The effect visitors may have on the welfare of professionally managed animals is vital to consider. The present study utilized an experimental approach to examine how 360° visitor viewing access (i.e., viewing from all sides of the habitat) impacts the behavior and physiology of Western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla, N = 7). Data collection included behavioral observations and obtaining fecal samples to examine physiological indicators of welfare. The study included a baseline period observing the gorillas’ behavior and physiology during the typical 360° visitor viewing access and a treatment period examining the same indicators but reducing viewing access by approximately 70%. Behavioral states, behavioral events, and hormone data were compared across conditions using Wilcoxon signed-rank tests. Restricted viewing did not impact social or solitary grooming (as a state behavior), social or solitary play, foraging, stereotypies, locomotion, inactivity, or behavioral diversity. However, restricted viewing significantly reduced solitary grooming events, fecal glucocorticoid metabolites, and the ratio of glucocorticoid metabolites to dehydroepiandrosterone metabolites. These results suggest that 360° visitor viewing access may have an impact on the welfare of gorillas. However, further research is necessary to thoroughly understand the influence of allowing 360° visitor viewing on behavior and its possible interaction with variables of the zoo environment.

An integrated, multi-level analysis of thermal effects on intertidal molluscs for understanding species distribution patterns.

Elucidating the physiological mechanisms that underlie thermal stress and discovering how species differ in capacities for phenotypic acclimatization and evolutionary adaptation to this stress is critical for understanding current latitudinal and vertical distribution patterns of species and for predicting their future state in a warming world. Such mechanistic analyses require careful choice of study systems (species and temperature-sensitive traits) and design of laboratory experiments that reflect the complexities of in situ conditions. Here, we critically review a wide range of studies of intertidal molluscs that provide mechanistic accounts of thermal effects across all levels of biological organization - behavioural, organismal, organ level, cellular, molecular, and genomic - and show how temperature-sensitive traits govern distribution patterns and capacities for coping with thermal stress. Comparisons of congeners from different thermal habitats are especially effective means for identifying adaptive variation. We employ these mechanistic analyses to illustrate how species differ in the severity of threats posed by rising temperature. Counterintuitively, we show that some of the most heat-tolerant species may be most threatened by increases in temperatures because of their small thermal safety margins and minimal abilities to acclimatize to higher temperatures. We discuss recent molecular biological and genomic studies that provide critical foundations for understanding the types of evolutionary changes in protein structure, RNA secondary structure, genome content, and gene expression capacities that underlie adaptation to temperature. Duplication of stress-related genes, as found in heat-tolerant molluscs, may provide enhanced capacity for coping with higher temperatures. We propose that the anatomical, behavioural, physiological, and genomic diversity found among intertidal molluscs, which commonly are of critical importance and high abundance in these ecosystems, makes this group of animals a highly appropriate study system for addressing questions about the mechanistic determinants of current and future distribution patterns of intertidal organisms.

Imprinting of canine IGF2 and H19.

Genomic imprinting occurs in therian mammals and is a phenomenon whereby the two alleles of a gene are differentially expressed, based on the sex of the parent from whom the alleles were inherited. The allelic differences in expression are the consequence of different epigenetic modifications that are established in the sperm or oocyte during gametogenesis and transmitted at fertilization to offspring. A small minority of genes is regulated in this way but they have important biological functions, and aberrant regulation of imprinted genes contributes to disease aetiology in humans and other animals. The factors driving the evolution of imprinted genes are also of considerable interest, as these genes appear to forego the benefits of diploidy. To broaden the phylogenetic analysis of genomic imprinting, we began a study of imprinted genes in the domestic dog, Canis familiaris. In this report, we show that canine IGF2 and H19 are imprinted, with parent-of origin-dependent monoallelic expression patterns in neonatal umbilical cord. We identify a putative imprint control region associated with the genes, and provide evidence for differential methylation of this region in a somatic tissue (umbilical cord) and for its hypermethylation in the male germline. Canis familiaris is fast becoming a highly informative system for elucidating disease processes and evolution, and the study of imprinted genes in this species may help in understanding how these genes contribute to the generation of morphological and behavioral diversity.

From fruitless to sex: On the generation and diversification of an innate behavior.

Male sexual behavior in Drosophila melanogaster, largely controlled by the fruitless (fru) gene encoding the male specific FruM protein, is among the best studied animal behaviors. Although substantial studies suggest that FruM specifies a neuronal circuitry governing all aspects of male sexual behaviors, recent findings show that FruM is not absolutely necessary for such behaviors. We propose that another regulatory gene doublesex encoding the male-specific DsxM protein builds a core neuronal circuitry that possesses the potential for courtship, which could be either induced through adult social experience or innately manifested during development by FruM expression in a broader neuronal circuitry. FruM expression levels and patterns determine the modes of courtship behavior from innate heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, to learned courtship. We discuss how FruM expression is regulated by hormones and social experiences and tunes functional flexibility of the sex circuitry. We propose that regulatory genes hierarchically build the potential for innate and learned aspects of courtship behaviors, and expression changes of these regulatory genes among different individuals and species with different social experiences ultimately lead to behavioral diversification.

Adventurous femininities: The value of adventure for women travelers

Adventure tourism has become a diverse and lucrative industry but is continually portrayed and advertised through its reflection of masculinity. Guided by the lack of studies on women in adventure tourism, the aim of this study is to examine behavioral diversity, the value gained from adventure experience, and the masculinity and femininity of female adventure tourists. A snowball sample of 420 female adventure tourists was collected through utilizing an internet-based survey methodology. Three clusters of women were identified based on their femininity and masculinity scores; Normatively Masculine Adventurers, Androgynous Adventurers, and Normatively Feminine Adventurers. Novel to this study is the validation of an integrated measurement of experiential value and that adventure tourism provides a spectrum of intrinsic and extrinsic value to women participants, most notably emotional value and functional value. Androgynous Adventurers in particular received stronger value experiences. These findings demonstrate that gender-aware tourism can inform and direct how adventure tourism can be advertised and marketed to women.