Behaviour Of Horses Research Articles

Horses’ resting behaviour in shelters of varying size compared with single boxes

Lying behaviour in horses is affected by factors such as bedding, housing and available lying area. For group-housed horses, social factors may influence access to available lying area and affect their ability to meet their need for sleep, including essential REM sleep. REM sleep can only be achieved when the whole body, including the head, is supported by the ground, so lateral recumbency is important to meet horses’ sleep requirements. This study investigated the effects of available lying area in shelters on horses’ lying and rising behaviour, on disturbance behaviour by horses, and on lying bouts by individual horses. Lying and rising behaviour was video-recorded for eight horses in single boxes (control treatment) and in an open-barn with three available lying area of 8, 18 and 28 m2/horse, respectively in the shelters. The results revealed significantly less lateral recumbency in the shelter with 8 m2 lying area/horse (22 min, p = 0.04) compared with the single boxes (52 min), and a tendency for more lateral recumbency with 18 m2 lying area/horse (48 min, p = 0.07) compared with 8 m2 lying area/horse. Rising without prior rolling was the most common rising behaviour in the single boxes. Frequency of rolling prior to rising varied from 14% to 55% for all housing systems, compared with previous observations of ~30% irrespective of available lying area. This may be due to inter-individual differences, indicating a need for detailed studies of rising behaviour. Lying behaviour was affected by the behaviour of other horses and also significantly affected by available lying area. With more available area in the shelter, horses lay down for almost twice as many bouts (p = 0.01) and for almost twice as long as compared to a smaller area (p = 0.001). Number of lying bouts (p = 0.001) and behaviour during rising from the lying position were also affected by available lying area. It is therefore likely that the space requirement to meet horses’ need for rest will be larger in group-housed horses than for horses in individual boxes.

An Initial Survey of Volunteer Perceptions of Horses in Equine-Assisted Services: Volunteer Experiences, Training, and Educational Needs

Equine-Assisted Services (EAS) gained a foothold in the healthcare industry as a unique modality addressing the physical, cognitive, and psychological health issues for people across the lifespan. These services require a team approach, with volunteer support playing a prominent role in service delivery. Volunteers are a precious resource for EAS programs and step into a variety of support roles, including preparation and handling. However, little is known about the horse-volunteer relationship or factors that influence their working relationships. Therefore, the purpose of this web-based survey was to characterize the volunteer experience and explore factors that may impact volunteers’ ability to accurately identify equine behavior. A total of 240 volunteers from 25 Professional Association for Therapeutic Horsemanship, International (PATH, Intl.) Premier Accredited Centers participated in this survey. The results of the correlational analyses and a general linear model suggested certain volunteer characteristics can be linked to accurate identification of horse behaviors. Horse leaders (P < .001) and volunteers who help with adaptive riding (P = .048) or therapeutic driving (P = .031) sessions more accurately recognized behaviors than those who held other roles. Volunteers who had any amount of horse experience prior to volunteering correctly identified more behaviors than those who came with none. A qualitative content analysis showed that volunteers felt most unprepared when a horse exhibited a behavior they were not trained to handle, and volunteers indicated their preparation to assist in EAS could be improved with more general training and education related to equine behavior.

Horse odor exploration behavior is influenced by pregnancy and age.

In spite of a highly developed olfactory apparatus of horses, implying a high adaptive value, research on equine olfaction is sparse. Our limited knowledge on equine olfaction poses a risk that horse behavior does not match human expectations, as horses might react fearful when exposed to certain odors, which humans do not consider as frightening. The benefit of acquiring more knowledge of equine olfaction is therefore twofold; (1) it can aid the understanding of horse behavior and hence reduce the risk of dangerous situations, and (2) there may be unexplored potential of using odors in several practical situations where humans interact with horses. This study investigated behavior and olfactory sensitivity of 35 Icelandic horses who were presented with four odors: peppermint, orange, lavender and cedar wood in a Habituation/Dishabituation paradigm. The response variables were sniffing duration per presentation and behavioral reaction (licking, biting, snorting, and backing), and data were analyzed for potential effects of age, sex and pregnancy. Results showed that habituation occurred between successive odor presentations (1st vs. 2nd and 2nd vs. 3rd presentations: P < 0.001), and dishabituation occurred when a new odor was presented (1st vs. 3rd presentations: P < 0.001). Horses were thus able to detect and distinguish between all four odors, but expressed significantly longer sniffing duration when exposed to peppermint (peppermint vs. orange, lavender and cedar wood: P < 0.001). More horses expressed licking when presented to peppermint compared to cedar wood and lavender (P = 0.0068). Pregnant mares sniffed odors less than non-pregnant mares (P = 0.030), young horses (age 0-5 years) sniffed cedar wood for longer than old horses (P = 0.030), whereas sex had no effect (P > 0.050). The results show that horses’ odor exploration behavior and interest in odors varies with age and pregnancy and that horses naïve to the taste of a substrate, may be able to link smell with taste, which has not been described before. These results can aid our understanding of horses’ behavioral reactions to odors, and in the future, it may be possible to relate these to the physiology and health of horses.

Does the start of flat races influence racehorse race performance?

It is in the horse racing industry’s interest to understand all factors that impact performance to maintain the integrity of the sport. There is some evidence that the start of flat races can affect racehorse performance. However, limited research exists on the explicit effect that waiting at the start and inside starting stalls (also known as starting gates or barriers) has on racehorse finishing position. This study investigated how temporal, behavior and loading related factors associated with the period before the start of the race influences racehorse performance. A cross-sectional design evaluated performance of 546 horses across eight flat race days at Chelmsford City Racecourse in November and December 2020, using televised racing coverage. Time horses spent inside starting stalls, the use of loading aids and jockey behaviors were recorded. Notational analysis was used to determine how much horses sweat and their behavior before, during and after loading. Behavior was categorized using an ethogram adapted from previous published research recording conflict behavior in horses. Horses that spent under 50 s inside starting stalls were more likely to win (p < 0.05) or finish in the top three (p < 0.01). Those showing moderate adverse behavior before loading (p < 0.01) and no adverse behavior inside stalls (p < 0.05) were more likely to win and place first to third, respectively, although behavior during loading had no significant effect. Horses sweating to the point of foaming (p < 0.01) and requiring specialist loaders (p < 0.05) were more likely to win, although the use of other loading aids did not significantly affect performance. Jockeys that pushed their bodyweight forwards in the saddle during loading were significantly more likely to place first to fourth (p < 0.05). A horse’s chance of placing first to third was reduced by 15% for every increase in drawn order (p < 0.01; CI:0.77–0.96) and by 59% when the horse spent over 50 s inside stalls (p < 0.05; CI:0.19–0.92). A horse’s likelihood of placing decreased by 13% for every year of age (p < 0.05; CI:0.78–0.97) and by a further 17% for each additional horse in the field (p < 0.001; CI:0.00–0.83). Racehorses showing adverse behavior inside stalls were 52% less likely to place (p < 0.05; CI:0.00–0.48). This research demonstrates that the start of flat races can influence performance, highlighting the importance of warm-up protocols and starting gate training to optimise performance. With further longitudinal research, these findings could support adjustments to the rules of racing regarding the start to improve and maintain the integrity of horseracing in the UK.

Case Study: Bilbo – Aggression and Escape Behaviours in a Horse

A case study of how past trauma and inadequate current environment can interact to create and maintain problematic behaviors. Bilbo, a young mare with a significant history of aggression and causing injury is sold with the advice that she be euthanized for her behavior. Six weeks later, her new owner called Certified Horse Behavior Consultant Abigail Allen for a consultation, because she is no longer able to be handled at her owner’s facility. Through providing outlets for foraging, opportunities to learn with target training, a proper diet, and the right kind of environmental enrichment, Abigail and her client were able to help Bilbo become more relaxed and significantly less aggressive.

Examining the costs and benefits of male-male associations in a group-living equid

In feral horse (Equus caballus) populations, females can associate in year-round social groups with one male (single-stallion (SS) groups) or multiple males (multi-stallion (MS) groups). Given the expectation of intense male competition for mating opportunities, male-male associations raise questions regarding their supporting mechanisms and adaptive consequences. The function of MS groups has been highly debated which led to a series of conflicting hypotheses attempting to describe the relationship between the males, and the costs and benefits of this association in relation to SS groups. Based on previous studies, our goal was to compare the group size and stability, males’ defence behaviour against group outsiders and access to females, levels of male aggression to group members, and the activity budget and body condition of horses in MS and SS groups. Between the months of May to August (breeding season) from 2016 to 2021, we collected demographic and behavioural data from feral Garrano horses living in northern Portugal, where wolf (Canis lupus signatus) predation is an important factor. Contrary to mutualistic hypotheses, our results indicated that SS males had more breeding females than MS groups and group type did not influence female membership stability. However, dominant males in MS groups may be benefitting from the presence of another male via decreased effort in group defence and more resting time. We recorded less aggressive behaviours from dominant to subordinate males in MS groups when subordinates displayed more defensive behaviours against outsiders, but we found little evidence that subordinates were being rewarded with access to females, as proposed by reciprocal-altruism hypotheses. Females in MS groups did not suffer higher levels of male aggression when compared with SS females, and the number of males in the group had no significant influence on the time females spent grazing and resting, and ultimately on their body condition. Future research should explore how MS male associations shape male-female relationships, which could provide further insights to the existence and maintenance of subordinate males. This study is the first to report on predation impact by wolves in MS and SS groups, highlighting the need to further explore how different ecological pressures shape horse behaviour and social organization. Furthermore, our results provide information that can help improve the welfare of domestic horses and can make informed management decisions of feral and free-ranging horse populations, particularly in instances where males are targeted for removals. Considering the advantages, as well as costs, provided by extra males may be useful to managers and horse owners, who can then act accordingly and with the least disturbance to horse populations.

The Impact of Noise Anxiety on Behavior and Welfare of Horses from UK and US Owner's Perspective.

Simple SummaryBeing a prey species, horses evolved to rapidly react to potential danger and loud noises may be perceived as such. Therefore, they can exhibit several anxiety behaviors during noisy events, including sweating, trembling and escape attempts, which may cause severe accidents for the horse and the rider/handler. Since noise anxiety can significantly impact on horse welfare, the aim of the present study was to investigate owners’ perception of noise anxiety severity in their horses, their management strategies and perceived efficacy. In a survey, 409 out of 1836 owners reported that their horse shows unusual behavior during a noise event. Among those, two noise anxiety clusters could be identified: very and slightly anxious horses. Very anxious horses were reported to have higher frequency of all anxiety behaviors and higher frequency of signs of noise reactivity; furthermore, their anxiety did not improve with time. The most frequently used management strategies were providing hay throughout the night or turning out or moving horses to a paddock; though, most of these techniques were reported to be effective only in the slightly anxious subjects. Our results confirmed that noise anxiety is a widespread behavioral problem (22% of our respondents reported that their horse had ever shown any unusual behavior in relation to loud noises) that can lead to negative welfare consequences for horses.Noise anxiety is an over-reaction to loud noises commonly detected among pets and can greatly impact on their welfare and on their management. When exposed to noisy events, horses can show intense escape attempts, which may cause severe accidents for the horse and the rider/handler. The aim of the present study was to investigate, through a web survey, UK and US owners’ perception of noise anxiety severity in their horses, their management strategies and perceived efficacy. The questionnaire was shared via social networking and advertised as “What is your horse afraid of?”. Over a total of 1836 questionnaires filled out; 409 owners reported that their horse has shown unusual behavior during a noise event. A two-step cluster analysis identified two groups: very anxious (VA) and slightly anxious (SA). VA horses were reported to have higher frequency of anxiety behaviors; higher frequency of signs of noise reactivity; and their anxiety did not improve with time. The most used management strategies consisted in providing hay throughout the night, turning in/out their horse or moving it to a paddock. A binomial logistic regression identified that horses that have reported injuries during noise events were more likely to be clustered as VA (OR = 0.24, 95% CI: 0.08–0.76); while providing hay throughout the night was more likely to be very effective management strategy in SA horses (OR = 0.41, 95% CI: 0.16–1.01). Our results confirmed that noise anxiety is a growing behavioral problem that can lead to important welfare concerns for horses. New management strategies, including the use of medicinal products, should be considered to reduce behavioral and physiological signs and help horses to cope with noisy events.

Regular positive reinforcement training increases contact-seeking behaviour in horses

Horses are commonly trained using negative reinforcement. However, a growing body of scientific evidence supports positive reinforcement as an efficient training method for horses. In this study we investigated the effects of adding a small but regular amount of positive reinforcement training to horses trained with negative reinforcement. A total of 36 privately owned horses not previously trained with positive reinforcement were divided into a training (N = 17) and a control (N = 19) group. The owners in the training group were asked to follow a training plan based on positive reinforcement for eight to nine weeks, in addition to their normal negative reinforcement training. The control horses continued with their usual negative reinforcement training. All horses were subjected to behavioural tests before and after the training period: a motionless human test to assess contact-seeking behaviour and a cognitive bias test to assess emotional state. Mane hair samples were obtained from all horses at the start and at the end of the training period to analyse hair cortisol concentrations as an expression of long-term stress. In addition, all owners filled out a questionnaire about their perceived relationship with their horses before and after the training period. We found that horses in the training group engaged in more physical contact (P = 0.050) with an unfamiliar person after the training period compared to before. The training group also tended to improve their owner-assessed relationship score (P = 0.072). They did not, however, show changes in their emotional state as assessed by the cognitive bias test (P > 0.1). Furthermore, we found no difference between the training and control groups in terms of hair cortisol concentrations. We conclude that a small but regular addition of positive reinforcement training can increase horses’ contact-seeking behaviour towards humans but is not enough to improve their emotional state or long-term stress levels.

Controlling separation-induced problem behavior in horses through target training

Equidae are herd animals, yet domesticated horses are routinely separated from their conspecifics. Separation of horses that are strongly bonded to one another can result in separation-induced challenging behaviors including human- and object-directed aggression, motor agitation, and stereotypy. There is a paucity of evidence-based strategies to control separation-induced problem behavior in domesticated horses. The current study used target training as an incompatible-behavior strategy to decrease separation-induced challenging behaviors. Four horses with a history of separation-induced challenging behaviors were clicker and target trained. Participants underwent a multiple-baseline experimental design across horse-owner dyads. The multiple-baseline design is a time-series approach based on the randomization of the treatment inception timepoint that can demonstrate treatment effects with small sample sizes. Horses underwent separation trials while being required to touch a target upon verbal commands. Compliance was reinforced with clicks paired with small portions of high-preference edibles. The intervention decreased separation-induced challenging behaviors in all horses to near-zero levels. In order to facilitate the uptake of treatment gains, owners participated in a brief owner training protocol during the generalization phase of the study. While the field has traditionally relied on aversive control, the effectiveness of the current intervention supports a wider application of reinforcement-based strategies in equine training.

Suppression of reproductive behaviour and gonadal function in female horses-An update.

The behaviour of mares is often detrimental to their performance resulting in frequent demand for methods to suppress gonadal function. In addition, prevention of unintended reproduction especially in feral horse populations may require methods for suppression of gonadal function. Surgical ovariectomy is a safe method but not an acceptable approach in feral mares and undesired in mares where future breeding is considered. There are different approaches for artificial prolongation of the luteal phase resulting in transient inhibition of oestrus and ovulation. Among those, treatment with natural or synthetic progestogens is considered the most common and successful method. Whereas application of intrauterine devices may result in prolongation of luteal function in non-pregnant mares, intrauterine insertion of glass balls is no longer recommended because of complications in individual mares. There are several safer alternatives that may be of interest, especially for population control in free-roaming horses. Treatment with long-acting deslorelin implants inhibited ovulation and oestrus behaviour in mares for limited and variable time intervals in a dose-dependent manner. The effect of GnRH vaccines varies considerably among individual mares, is age dependent, and oestrus-like behaviour may still occur. Contraception via immunization against native porcine or recombinant zona pellucida antigen is successful, but immunocontraception is as much a result of ovarian inactivity as an antibody-based block to sperm-oocyte binding. In conclusion, several treatments for suppression of gonadal function in mares are available, but there are advantages and disadvantages associated that have to be considered. The treatment of choice will thus differ with regard to the demands.

Strategic integration of battery energy storage and photovoltaic at low voltage level considering multiobjective cost-benefit

Renewable energy sources, such as solar photovoltaic (PV) systems and battery energy storage systems (BESS), help reduce greenhouse gas emissions while fulfilling the world?s growing energy demand. The inclusion of BESS reduces the peak hour demand, and control of charging and discharging of BESS can be economical for distributors facing time-based energy pricing. This paper discusses a novel multiobjective Horse herd optimisation algorithm (MOHHOA) approach, which is inspired by the social behaviour of horses in herds for PV and BESS optimal allocation in the radial distribution system. The proposed algorithm combines multiple benefits like benefits from economic gain per day, reduction in CO2 emission per day, and reduction in energy loss per day. IEEE 69-bus radial distribution system (RDS) is used for testing the suggested approach. The case studies and simulation results show that the suggested model effectively accommodated PV power generation in IEEE 69-bus RDS without violating any system constraints. Results indicate improvement in node voltage profiles, security margins and energy losses, and peak energy savings, and system characteristics as a whole, and there were significantly improved techno-economic performance of the distribution system.

An Improved Wild Horse Optimizer for Solving Optimization Problems

Wild horse optimizer (WHO) is a recently proposed metaheuristic algorithm that simulates the social behavior of wild horses in nature. Although WHO shows competitive performance compared to some algorithms, it suffers from low exploitation capability and stagnation in local optima. This paper presents an improved wild horse optimizer (IWHO), which incorporates three improvements to enhance optimizing capability. The main innovation of this paper is to put forward the random running strategy (RRS) and the competition for waterhole mechanism (CWHM). The random running strategy is employed to balance exploration and exploitation, and the competition for waterhole mechanism is proposed to boost exploitation behavior. Moreover, the dynamic inertia weight strategy (DIWS) is utilized to optimize the global solution. The proposed IWHO is evaluated using twenty-three classical benchmark functions, ten CEC 2021 test functions, and five real-world optimization problems. High-dimensional cases (D = 200, 500, 1000) are also tested. Comparing nine well-known algorithms, the experimental results of test functions demonstrate that the IWHO is very competitive in terms of convergence speed, precision, accuracy, and stability. Further, the practical capability of the proposed method is verified by the results of engineering design problems.

Evaluating changes in horse behavior as a response to small unmanned aerial vehicles

• The application of small unmanned aerial systems (sUAS) has expanded to include livestock management, however the effects of sUAS disturbance on domestic horses ( Equus calibus ) has not been well documented. • We developed an ethogram to classify and record horse behaviors and changes in response to disturbance using a DJI Phantom 4 Pro sUAS by monitoring horse behavior at 5 second intervals from 3 m, 15 m, and 33 m above ground level (AGL). • We found vigilance was the most common behavior after initial approach at all AGLs. • Horses took evasive measures after approximately 20 seconds at lower AGL (i.e., <3 m). • The recovery to the control behavior occurred sooner at higher AGLs and most horses recovered within 60 seconds. • sUAS could be a valuable tool in horse management, including their potential use during domestic and free-roaming horse roundups.

Effect of adult male sterilization on the behavior and social associations of a feral polygynous ungulate: the horse

Castration is commonly used to control the behavior of companion animals and livestock, yet there have been few longitudinal studies of its effects. Despite the ubiquity of this surgery in ridden horses, the effects of castration (termed gelding in horses) have rarely been examined in a reproductive population. We tested effects of gelding on maintenance and social behaviors of individuals pre- and post-gelding, and in comparison to intact control adult males (2 to >16 years old) in both harem and bachelor status, we then tested how gelding affected association with mares (i.e., maintenance of a harem group) compared to intact controls, and any effects on bachelor social associations. We further explored any effects on foaling rate to assess potential impacts on population growth rate. We conducted this study over four years (2017–2020) at two Herd Management Areas (HMAs) in western Utah, USA: Conger and Frisco. We conducted demographic observations year round at both HMAs to record survival and foaling rate. We additionally recorded behavioral observations at Conger HMA. In December 2017, 27 adult males from Conger (42% of adult males in the population) were gelded and returned to the range with their social groups. Due to pre-treatment observations we were able to compare stallions of known status pre- and post-treatment (harem or bachelor), as well as gelded and intact males. We had no morbidity or mortality related to the gelding surgery and all males maintained good body condition throughout the study. There was no effect of gelding on maintenance behaviors (feeding, moving, and standing). There was no effect of gelding on frequency of agonistic behavior, and a non-significant tendency for less reproductive behavior in geldings; geldings showed more affiliative and less marking behavior. Age class and/or social status were better predictors of behavior than gelding. Over time fewer geldings maintained a harem, and their harem size declined during the study. Horses that were bachelors when gelded tended to remain as bachelors, whereas intact bachelors of the same cohort mostly attained a harem. Foaling rate at Conger was reduced in the year following treatment, but then returned to pre-treatment levels. From a welfare perspective gelding is safe to use in feral horses and has minimal effects on horse behavior and social interactions in a reproductive herd. Effectiveness for population growth control would likely require a larger proportion of males in the population to be castrated for longer-term effects on foaling rate.

Approach to clinical nutrition

While there is no single ‘correct’ way of feeding horses, inappropriate diets and feeding regimens can negatively impact equine health, welfare, behaviour and performance. It is also well recognised that nutrition (taken here to include both the diet and nutritional management) can be part of the problem as well as the solution for several key clinical conditions such as obesity, laminitis and certain muscle disorders. In addition, nutrition, alongside veterinary support, has a role to play in the management of many clinical conditions, such as gastric ulcers. This means that nutrition competency, or having an experienced equine nutritionist as part of your support network, is key for veterinarians. This article provides guidance to veterinarians when they themselves, or in collaboration with their nutritional support team, evaluate a clinical case that requires more targeted and focused nutritional advice. This is intended to be an introduction to a series of more in-depth articles on specific conditions.

Horse herd optimization algorithm for economic dispatch problems

This article applies the horse herd optimization (HHO) algorithm to convoluted economic dispatch (ED) problems. HHO mimics the social behaviour of horses of different ages using six significant traits: grazing, hierarchy, sociability, imitation, defence mechanism and roam. The efficacy of the HHO method is demonstrated on five different ED problems, namely, valve-point effects, prohibited feasible area, ramp rate limits and multiple fuels. The simulated outcomes of the recommended method are comparable to those obtained by established artificial intelligence methods. Comparative and statistical analyses demonstrate that the proposed HHO algorithm performs well and can produce superior results to some other well-known and established algorithms, namely, differential evolution (DE), success-history based adaptive differential evolution with linear population size reduction (L-SHADE) and covariance matrix adaptation–evolution strategy (CMA-ES).

Studying feral horse behavior from the sky

Unmanned aerial vehicles, commonly known as drones, have become widely available in recent years. A drone provides a bird’s eye view, which is useful in detecting and observing wild animals. One strength of imagery obtained by a drone is that it enables the capture of the two-dimensional spatial relationship of animals on the ground. I and colleagues have investigated the spatial relationships of feral horses at both intra- and inter-group levels. At the intra-group level, the distribution of the inter-individual distance of horses follows a certain pattern, indicating repulsion and attraction forces taking place among group members, similar to those in a school of fish, flock of birds, or swarm of insects. At the inter-group level, multiple unit groups aggregate to form a herd, suggesting the existence of a multilevel social structure. Automation of the analysis of the recordings of a drone, including target animal detection, individual identification, and motion tracking, presents a way forward. Drones and other emerging technologies will enhance our understanding of swarm behavior both in vivo and in vitro.

Comparing the pathology of equine stereotypical behaviours to obsessive-compulsive and related disorder in humans: An exploratory Delphi study

Limited evidence supports the hypothesised link between Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders (OCRD) and Equine Stereotypical Behaviours (ESB), despite the existence of many non-human animal OCRD models. ESBs are viewed as aversive behaviours or ‘stable vices’ by the general horse owning population, in stark contrast to the psychological disorders OCRDs are known to be. ESBs have been linked to intensive domestication and sub-optimal living conditions and current ESB management strategies are known to be more harmful than relieving. An anonymous three-round Delphi study was conducted with the expertise of five panellists heavily involved in the fields of human, horse and other animal behaviour, welfare and medicine to gain perspective of the extent of similarities and differences between OCRD and ESB. The main elements considered are neurology and neurological dysfunction, causal factors, aetiology, behavioural presentations, effects on welfare and the potential benefits and harms of recognising ESB as a manifestation of OCRD. Round One consisted of a series of open-ended questions to gather common themes on which to base the Round Two Likert-style scale questions and further open-ended questions, the answers to which formed statements used in Round Three. The panellists were asked to specify reasons for agreement or disagreement directed towards reaching consensus. Qualitative analysis was used throughout including open coding in Rounds One and Two. A tentative consensus was reached in that all panellists agree that OCRD and ESB are comparable conditions which share some causal factors, e.g. neurotransmitter pathway and signalling dysfunctions, stress in early life and genetic predispositions. However, there was some dispute over the cognitive underpinnings leading to hesitations surrounding the nature, or even existence of, obsessive thoughts and therefore the neurobiological causes of compulsive behaviours in horses. It was noted that the vastly different lifestyles of humans and husbandry of horses play an important role in the nature and presentations of OCRD and ESB, and most agreed that diagnosing ESB as a non-human presentation of OCRD would be beneficial to increasing owner and carer awareness of the importance of high welfare standards. However, this was not deemed to be essential, whereas improving knowledge available to owners and carers was.

Psychological Benefits of Equine-Facilitated Activities for Children Diagnosed with Cerebral Palsy

Equine-facilitated activities (EFA) are generally considered to be an alternative treatment method by using the natural body form, gait and behavior of horses. EFA have been used for many years to treat and to improve the living conditions of people with disorders or disabilities such as autism, cerebral palsy (CP), arthritis, multiple sclerosis, stroke, spinal cord injury, behavioral and psychiatric disorders. This study aims to examine the effects of adaptive riding (AR), which is a subdiscipline under EFA, on anxiety, empathy, aggression, and emotional regulation of children diagnosed with cerebral palsy. Maternal depression and anxiety level measurements were also included in the study. Twenty children with CP, between 7 and 10 years old and their mothers participated in the study. They were randomly assigned to one of two groups (intervention and control) consisting of 10 participants. Pre and post measurements were implemented at the beginning and at the end of 8 weeks of AR intervention. The Screen for Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders, Bryant Index of Empathy Measurement for Children and Adolescents, Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire, Beck Depression Inventory, The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory were used to measure the psychological and emotional status of the participants and depression, anxiety levels of mothers. Aggression, anxiety, and maternal depression decreased; empathy and emotional regulation improved in the intervention group. No significant differences found in the control group. This study provides strong evidence that an 8-week AR intervention has positive effects on children with cerebral palsy. Significant improvements regarding both maternal and children’s psychological and emotional aspects showed how an alternative therapy with animals can be constructive.

A new approach to horse welfare based on systems thinking

AbstractGlobally, calls for change in the horse industry to prioritise the health and well-being of domestic horses (Equus caballus) are reaching a critical threshold. Horse behaviour deemed undesirable or inconvenient by owners (henceforth referred to as undesirable behaviour) is reported across all aspects of a horse's life and may indicate a welfare issue. This study proposes a reconceptualisation of undesirable horse behaviour as a complex challenge based on systems thinking. Emerging from the natural sciences, systems thinking is an interdisciplinary approach to complex challenges (such as undesirable behaviour) as dynamic, highly interconnected networks of components and feedback relationships. This critical literature review examined the undesirable behaviours studied, the disciplines conducting research and their underpinning assumptions to identify opportunities for approaching research differently. Four themes emerged from the literature: undesirable behaviour is typically studied with unarticulated assumptions and in individual disciplines; behaviours are typically studied in isolation with the complexity of horse-human interactions generally not considered; management of behaviour typically has an anthropocentric linear ‘cause and effect’ focus; and solutions to undesirable behaviour are often short-term ‘fixes’ resulting in poor horse outcomes. From these, we outline the opportunities that each provide the next generation of horse research in terms of interdisciplinarity, systems thinking and management Undesirable horse behaviour in a horse-human system is conceptually mapped in terms of factors associated with the behaviour (eg housing, stress, diet), and the relationships between them. Systems thinking offers a way to integrate multiple disciplines and identify and navigate new solutions to promote horse welfare.