Behavioral Spillover Research Articles

The more the better? Synergies of prosocial interventions and effects on behavioural spillovers

Incentivising prosocial and pro-environmental behaviours is a sensitive endeavour. While behavioural change is urgently needed to mitigate the consequences of climate change, monetary interventions often have negative side effects. Such interventions are prone to motivation crowding, which can impede lasting positive behavioural change and stimulate negative temporal spillovers to other prosocial behaviours. In this study, we investigate whether implementing monetary interventions as part of policy mixes can mitigate these negative side effects. In an online experiment involving 3782 participants, we test whether the use of nudges that make personal and social norms salient can counteract the motivation-crowding effect and explore the effects of such policy mixes on temporal spillovers. We find that policy mixes of norm-based nudges and monetary incentives are more effective at stimulating engagement in targeted prosocial behaviour than no intervention when controlling for sample characteristics. Analysing the temporal spillover effects of these interventions reveals that policy mixes can alleviate the tendency of monetary incentives to negatively affect subsequent prosocial behaviour. This indicates that norm-based nudges are suitable complements to monetary interventions, facilitating long-lasting positive effects.

The chicken or the egg? Spillover between private climate action and climate policy support

People engage in many different activities with climate consequences, including mundane everyday activities, such as eating meals and either saving or throwing away leftovers, and collective actions, such as voting, participating in political events and in other ways expressing support for or resistance against climate-relevant policy. Does engaging in everyday climate-relevant activities have implications for support of climate policy, and vice versa, as suggested by research on pro-environmental behavioural spillover? A repeated survey was collected yearly between 2018 and 2022 from representative samples of Norwegians, most of whom participated in more than one survey. The surveys included self-reports about two everyday climate-relevant behaviours (eating red meat and discarding food waste) and the support for two types of policy to mitigate climate change (expansion of wind power and “carbon taxes” – the use of taxes or fees to regulate climate-relevant behaviour). Cross-lagged structural equation modelling of relationships between everyday climate-relevant behaviour and support for mitigation policy reveal that, as expected, all auto-regressive effects (of a latent variable on itself, measured one year apart) are highly significant. There are also significant, positive cross-lagged (i.e., spillover) effects, which are generally bigger between the two types of everyday behaviours and support for the two types of policies than between everyday behaviour and policy support. However, support for carbon taxes has a strong positive effect on reducing meat consumption. Hence, it appears that when it comes to climate actions, consumer and citizen roles are intertwined. Spillover effects are partly mediated through climate concern.

Environmental policy behavioral spillovers: The impact of California's single‐use carryout bag ban on the use of unregulated single‐use plastics

AbstractThis study examines the spillover effect of California's 2016 single‐use bag ban (SB 270) on unregulated single‐use plastics (SUPs) like cutlery, cups, and plates. We observed an insignificant 4.8% decrease in SUP sales over the entire post‐policy period, but a larger 8.1% drop in the second post‐year, which was only marginally significant. The findings suggest weak spillover effects from such environmental policies, indicating that direct regulations on certain environmentally harmful products might be more effective if jurisdictions aim to prohibit citizens from excessive use, rather than relying on the positive spillover effect from existing policies.

Norm violations and behavioral spillovers—Evidence from the lab and the field

This paper explores the contagion effects of norm-violating behavior across decision situations. Through a series of laboratory and field experiments, we empirically establish the conditions under which norm-breaking behavior in one decision situation leads individuals who observe this to violate norms in other, distinct decision situations. Our laboratory findings show that these spillover effects are more pronounced when the norms underlying the decision situations are perceived to be similar. However, spillovers can also affect decision situations governed by relatively dissimilar norms if the observers of norm violations have had the opportunity to first violate the same norm as the observed violator themselves. In an accompanying field experiment, we underscore the economic importance of norm similarity for spillover effects. When workers are exposed to information about celebrities evading taxes, they exhibit significantly higher rates of workplace theft than those in the control group, yet this exposure does not negatively affect work morale.

Behavioral spillovers from green purchases: comparing impacts on consumption and policy support

Green labels and green advertising aim to promote products associated with less energy demands and lower carbon emissions. However, there are indications that purchasing green products may trigger negative spillover effects to subsequent pro-environmental behaviors. One policy-relevant question is whether spillovers from green purchases vary between different types of pro-environmental behaviors, notably consumption vs. policy support, and what determines any differences. Another important question is whether the price of green products affects the magnitude and direction of such spillover effects. Using an experiment among US citizens (N = 1,985), we show that spillovers from green purchases differ significantly between pro-environmental behaviors. In particular we find that spillovers are positive for green consumption and negative for climate policy support. Regarding price effects, we do not find robust evidence on their moderating role but only a tendency for cheap prices to exacerbate the direction of the spillover: negative for policy support and positive for green consumption. Finally, pro-environmental identity, previously suggested in the literature as a central moderator of spillover effects from green purchases, appears to be less determinant.

The Potential Pro-Environmental Behavior Spillover Effects of Specialization in Environmentally Responsible Outdoor Recreation

Outdoor recreationists represent a key population to educate for pro-environmental behavior (PEB). Given that previous research has found a mixed relationship between outdoor recreation and PEB, this research merges several concepts to better understand the social psychological nuances of this relationship. Specifically, this study explores how specialization regarding environmentally responsible outdoor recreation is related to other PEBs through a behavioral spillover framework. A correlational structural equation model was utilized to test this framework within a merged population of individuals from the Leave No Trace organization and general United States citizens. The results suggested that traditional behavioral spillover dynamics held for private PEBs but not public PEBs. However, recreation specialization was significantly related to both PEB types. These results suggest that the current behavioral spillover theory may only explain the relationship between some PEBs. Furthermore, environmentally responsible outdoor recreation specialization may be a promising pathway toward a spillover into encouraging private and public PEBs.

Does perceived similarity of pro-environmental behaviors lead to behavioral spillover?

Similarity of pro-environmental behaviors is described as a moderator of behavioral spillover: when behaviors are perceived as similar positive spillover would be more likely. However, how people perceive similarity is unclear and therefore, the exact role that similarity plays in the spillover process is uncertain. In a survey (n = 1,536) we investigated how people clustered a variety of pro-environmental behaviors and why. Moreover, we explored potential spillovers between people's current and desired behaviors. People appeared to mainly cluster behaviors according to domains (such as energy, mobility) in addition to other categorization types. Furthermore, positive spillovers from actual to desired behavior occurred both within and between domains. In other words, similarity did not seem to play an important role in predicting spillover. In general, people who clustered behaviors into more different categories had a stronger overall desire to behave pro-environmentally than people who used fewer clusters.

Behavioral spillover in the circular economy: The importance of consumer goals

The transition to a circular economy requires that consumers take responsibility for both the acquisition and disposal of what they consume. In Europe and around the world, there has for a long time been a focus on reducing and recycling waste, including from households. This implies a responsibility for households to source-separate their waste and take the recyclable fractions to designated containers or collection points, with the dual purpose of reducing landfills and reusing products and materials. However, for the latter to work, and for the economy to become truly circular, consumers must buy used products or products with recycled materials (i.e., circular products). Some consumers reject circular products, assuming they are of lower quality, while others value their environmental friendliness. In this study, we test the hypotheses that (a) the more consumers recycle, the more inclined they are to also buy circular products, and vice versa, and (b) that this behavioral spillover is mediated through strengthening the goal of waste reduction. These hypotheses are tested in a cross-lagged panel structural equation model by means of a two-wave online panel survey in Denmark (Copenhagen) and Portugal (Lisbon) (n ≈ 500 in wave 1 in each country). In both countries, we find a significant and positive cross-lagged effect from recycling to buying circular products, and in Portugal also the other way round. These “spillover” effects are mediated by commitment to and perceived progress toward the goals of waste reduction and saving resources – in Denmark primarily by goal commitment and in Portugal primarily by perceived goal progress. This suggests that communications to engage consumers in the circular economy should emphasize the logical connection between recycling and buying circular products, and in particular the superordinate waste and conservation goals to which both contribute.

In-role to Extra-role: A Goal-based Analysis of Pro-environmental Behavioural Spillover

In-role to Extra-role: A Goal-based Analysis of Pro-environmental Behavioural Spillover

Understanding urban agriculture in context: environmental, social, and psychological benefits of agriculture in Singapore

ABSTRACT The purported environmental, social, psychological, and economic benefits of urban agricultural initiatives (UAIs) are context-dependent. However, little research has been done on UAIs in Asia, and to our knowledge, no research conducted in Singapore. This study investigated the benefits perceived by employees and volunteers at an UAI in Singapore, an Asian city–state, and how these benefits were achieved or impeded. A secondary aim was to examine differences in participants’ perceptions. To address these aims, in-depth interviews were conducted with 13 employees and volunteers, followed by a Q-sort of 36 interview statements delivered to the same participants. The results suggested that the UAI had environmental, social, and psychological benefits which include fostering a genuine connection with nature and facilitating pro-environmental behavioural spillover; enabling friendships and learning to communicate with diverse peoples; and increasing self-awareness and gratitude, respectively. These are facilitated through tactile involvement with nature, exposure to pro-environmental behaviours, a culture of open-mindedness that encourages social interaction and encouragement of reflection. On the other hand, the UAI’s economic impact in terms of employment and food production was impeded by its financial difficulties. While both volunteers and employees perceived the psychosocial benefits, it was employees who emphasised the UAI’s financial difficulties. These benefits and impediments and how they manifest reflect Singapore’s communitarian worldview and accompanying social norms, and demonstrate the local and global relevance of situating UAIs in context. Relevant areas of future research are suggested. (234 words)

Evolution of behavioral research on E‐waste management: Conceptual frameworks and future research directions

AbstractThe rapid growth of e‐waste or waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) has garnered significant attention from scholars, particularly in the behavioral domain. This study aims to conduct a comprehensive bibliometric analysis and content analysis to provide a systematic review of WEEE‐behavioral research. Firstly, a bibliometric analysis was performed using Biblioshiny (R packages) on a sample of 293 articles from Scopus and WOS databases. This part addresses the research question: A) How has the WEEE‐behavioral domain evolved over time in terms of key journals, institutions, countries, trending topics, and research streams? Secondly, a content analysis was conducted on 41 relevant articles that were able to address the following research questions: B) What are the main theories utilized and their implications in WEEE‐behavioral research? and C) what are the potential directions for future research? The findings reveal two distinct research categories, namely circular economic behavior and behavioral spillovers, with seven underlying and emerging clusters followed by corresponding research streams. Additionally, the theory of planned behavior (TPB) emerged as the core theory that was extensively utilized and expanded upon. Consequently, this study contributes to 1) understanding the evolution of the WEEE‐behavioral domain, 2) proposing an integrated theoretical framework, 3) identifying the primary research streams and their interconnections, and 4) suggesting avenues for future research, supported by a robust conceptual model for hypothesis generation.

A Drop in the Ocean? Fostering Water-Saving Behavior and Spillover Through Information Provision and Feedback

Pro-environmental change is essential to address climate change. Impact from behavior change interventions increases if non-target behaviors also change. Here, we explore such behavioral spillover effects following a water conservation behavioral intervention and examine whether they are mediated by changes in relevant identities and beliefs. We used a persuasive intervention to encourage 150 participants to reduce daily shower-times over 14 days to conserve water. The intervention comprised information-provision, eliciting a shower time reduction commitment, and (for half the sample) progress feedback. We found that participants reduced shower time (by 38%) and intended to engage more in water-saving and pro-environmental activities, but we found no evidence of behavioral spillover (i.e., non-targeted intention change was not mediated by change in the target behavior). There was no additional effect on behavior change of receiving feedback. We discuss the implications of these findings for spillover in theory and practice.

Cooperation in knowledge sharing and R&D investment

This paper reports a laboratory experiment that provides insights on cooperation in R&D investment when knowledge sharing decisions are endogenous. Specifically, there are two types of treatments: one in which participants decide on whether to share knowledge before they make their investment decisions and one where the knowledge sharing constellation is exogenously given, both with and without non-binding communication. The results show that there are behavioral spillovers between the decisions on knowledge sharing and investment. When exogenously set, the degree of symmetric knowledge sharing does not affect cooperation. Communication increases cooperation more when participants can decide on knowledge sharing.

Plastic action or distraction? Marine plastic campaigns influence public engagement with climate change in both general and engaged audiences

Climate change poses a key threat to marine ecosystems globally. Yet, contemporary discussions on marine conservation and individual action tend to focus on small lifestyle changes such as reducing plastic use. Some question whether campaigns that target “low impact” behaviours such as those related to plastic distract from broader sustainability goals such as mitigating climate change. However, others suggest that promoting simple behaviours may cause “behavioural spillover”, where simple behaviours influence the adoption of additional and potentially more impactful behaviours. Across two experimental surveys (N1 =581, N2 =572), in the context of the Great Barrier Reef, we test whether messages targeting plastic behaviours can influence the adoption of a range of climate-related behaviours, from reducing personal emissions to urging local representatives to take action on climate change. We find that messages which focus on plastic pollution can potentially lead to an increase in climate behaviours, particularly when past behaviours are made salient. However, we find no positive effects for already engaged audiences. Our findings suggest caution when developing plastic messaging strategies for reef conservation when behavioural spillover is the central goal.

Promoting environmentally friendly sun-protection behaviors among coastal state residents

Ecotoxicology studies increasingly point to harmful environmental effects from common sunscreen chemicals that filter ultraviolet light. As a result, governments are attempting to reduce ecological exposure through bans on these chemicals and outreach to consumers. Public health research has shown that sun protection choices are often highly context dependent, which may limit the extent to which newly adopted behaviors “spillover,” i.e. transfer to other places or influence additional pro-environmental actions. This study tests key theoretical literatures on behavioral spillover within this rapidly evolving area of environmental policy. In a factorial survey with Hawaii, North Carolina, and Florida residents (n = 735), respondents were more likely to say they would switch sunscreen than wear protective clothing in response to pro-environmental behavior change messages. Sunscreen message framing (“reef friendly” vs. “mineral based”), state of residence, and the location of coastal parks affected site-specific sun protection preferences. Further, sunscreen message framing effects spilled over to general sun protection preferences for the next time respondents go to the shore or beach. Yet, respondents cited lack of information as a barrier in making sunscreen choices. Public responsiveness to “reef friendly” branding—as demonstrated in this research—is confounded by unclear consumer information about which sunscreen formulations qualify, impeding the effectiveness of state and federal efforts to protect natural resources. Alternately, efforts to support changing public norms for UPF clothing may offer an emergent opportunity to promote both public health and environmental goals.

Behavioural Spillovers Unpacked

Behavioural Spillovers Unpacked

Incentives and intertemporal behavioral spillovers: A two-period experiment on charitable giving

We test whether and, if so, how incentives to promote prosocial behavior affect the extent to which they spill over to subsequent charitable giving. To do so, we conduct a two-period framed field experiment to study repeated prosocial decisions of more than 700 participants. We vary how participants’ first prosocial behavior is incentivized by a wide range of interventions ranging from soft to hard paternalism. Our design allows us to decompose spillover effects into a pure spillover effect, which identifies the impact of previous prosocial behavior on subsequent donation decisions and crowding effects, which capture the extent to which the spillover effects are affected by the intervention exerted on the previous prosocial behavior. We find evidence for negative spillover effects. Participants donate less if they completed a prosocial task prior to the donation decision. Most importantly, we find that the spillover effects depend on how the initial prosocial behavior has been incentivized. Especially participants who are incentivized to donate through social comparisons are more willing to give to charity thereafter compared to participants whose initial prosocial behavior is incentivized by monetary rewards.

Two (or more) for one: Identifying classes of household energy- and water-saving measures to understand the potential for positive spillover.

A key component of behavior-based energy conservation programs is the identification of target behaviors. A common approach is to target behaviors with the greatest energy-saving potential. The concept of behavioral spillover introduces further considerations, namely that adoption of one energy-saving behavior may increase (or decrease) the likelihood of other energy-saving behaviors. This research aimed to identify and describe household energy- and water-saving measure classes within which positive spillover is likely to occur (e.g., adoption of energy-efficient appliances may correlate with adoption of water-efficient appliances), and explore demographic and psychographic predictors of each. Nearly 1,000 households in a California city were surveyed and asked to report whether they had adopted 75 different energy- and/or water-saving measures. Principal Component Analysis and Network Analysis based on correlations between adoption of these diverse measures revealed and characterized eight water-energy-saving measure classes: Water Conservation, Energy Conservation, Maintenance and Management, Efficient Appliance, Advanced Efficiency, Efficient Irrigation, Green Gardening, and Green Landscaping. Understanding these measure classes can help guide behavior-based energy program developers in selecting target behaviors and designing interventions.

COVID-19 Mitigation Among College Students: Social Influences, Behavioral Spillover, and Antibody Results

ABSTRACT By fall 2020, students returning to U.S. university campuses were mandated to engage in COVID-19 mitigation behaviors, including masking, which was a relatively novel prevention behavior in the U.S. Masking became a target of university mandates and campaigns, and it became politicized. Critical questions are whether the influences of injunctive norms and response efficacy on one behavior (i.e. masking) spill over to other mitigation behaviors (e.g. hand-washing), and how patterns of mitigation behaviors are associated with clinical outcomes. We conducted a cross-sectional survey of college students who returned to campus (N = 837) to explore these questions, and conducted COVID-19 antibody testing on a subset of participants to identify correlations between behaviors and disease burden. The results showed that college students were more likely to intend to wear face masks as they experienced more positive injunctive norms, liberal political views, stronger response efficacy for masks, and less pessimism. Latent class analysis revealed four mitigation classes: Adherents who intended to wear face masks and engage in the other COVID-19 mitigation behaviors; Hygiene Stewards and Masked Symptom Managers who intended to wear masks but only some other behaviors, and Refusers who intended to engage in no mitigation behaviors. Importantly, the Hygiene Stewards and Refusers had the highest likelihood of positive antibodies; these two classes differed in their masking intentions, but shared very low likelihoods of physical distancing from others and avoiding crowds or mass gatherings. The implications for theories of normative influences on novel behaviors, spillover effects, and future messaging are discussed.

More than a Ban on Smoking? Behavioural Spillovers of Smoking Bans in the Workplace

Are workplace smoking bans (WSBs) more than a ban on smoking? We study whether WSBs influence smoking cessation and exert behavioural spillover effects on (i) a number of health behaviours, and (ii) on individuals not directly affected by the bans. Drawing upon quasi-experimental evidence from Russia (a country where about half of the population smokes), which introduced a WBS (in addition to a smoking ban on public places), and adopting a difference-in-differences (DiD) strategy, which compares employed individuals (exposed to the work and public place ban) to those unemployed (exposed only to the ban in public places), we document three sets of findings. First, unlike previous studies (focusing on smoking bans in public places), we find robust evidence that WSBs increase smoking cessation in 2.9 percentage points (pp) among men. Second, we find that upon the WSB, quitters are less likely to use alcohol (6.7pp reduction among men and 3.5 pp among women), reduce their alcohol consumption (10 percent among men) and increase their physical activity (in 4.3 percentage points among men). WSBs are found to influence health behaviours of those not directly affected by the reform, such as never smokers. Our findings are consistent with a model of joint formation of health behaviours, and suggest of the needs to account for a wider set of spillover effects when estimating the welfare effect of WSBs.