Behavioral Approach System Research Articles

Emotional and Behavioral Responses to COVID-19

Abstract. This review appraises evidence for the role of personality in COVID-19 related emotions and behaviors. Three key models of personality are considered: the Five-factor Model, HEXACO model, and Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST). In line with personality research, more generally, most studies focus on the Five-Factor model. Key findings are that neuroticism is most associated with poor mental health, and extraversion is associated with a reluctance to socially isolate. Conscientiousness predicts compliance with safety guidelines but also with fewer prosocial behaviors, particularly stockpiling. Research within the HEXACO framework largely confirms these findings, especially for emotionality and mental health. The additional HEXACO Honesty-Humility factor is found to be associated with prosocial views and abstention from panic buying. Studies based on the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of personality indicate emotional conflict as people wish to stay safe while maintaining a sense of normality. Behavioral compliance is driven by activation in the Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS; fear-related) and the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS; anxiety-related). The Behavioral Approach System (BAS) is implicated in approach-driven behaviors such as avoiding infection. These findings have implications for health communications and post-pandemic support.

FURTHER VALIDATING PROFILES OF IMPULSIVE AGGRESSION IN YOUTH

Prior work identified distinct latent profiles of youth with common principal components between all data sets being aggression with impulsivity and reactivity (AIR), rule-breaking, mania, and depression. Our objective is to characterize youths with AIR by exploring associations between AIR and behavior inhibition and approach system (BIS/BAS), callous-unemotional traits and family history (FH), as well as caregiver’s mood symptoms. We also discuss neuropsychological differences between youth with AIR and those with other profiles. Univariate ANOVAs established correlations between parent/youth reports on the BIS/BAS scale and the established profiles with the principal components. Bivariate correlations and ANOVA explored associations and differences in severity between AIR component scores and Antisocial Process Screening Device (APSD) scores. Univariate ANOVAs, correlations, χ2 tests, and t tests examined correlations between the caregiver’s mood symptoms and FH with youth’s symptoms, including AIR. Univariate ANOVAs identified patterns across psychopathology profiles, and bivariate correlations evaluated relationships between psychopathology and 13 neuropsychological measures. Profiles that included AIR and/or ADHD and manic symptoms showed greater positive associations with BAS and negative associations with BIS, when compared to a profile characterized by depression. The AIR profile was most associated with impulsivity and narcissism, but not with callous-unemotional traits. Caregiver’s mood symptoms were highest in youths with mixed bipolar symptoms and/or AIR, and showed correlations with AIR, mood problems, and self-harm. FH of mood disorders was correlated with mania, depression, and AIR even though the AIR profile was distinct from mania or depression. Profiles with high hyperactivity/impulsivity, AIR, and severe mood symptoms showed faster response to emotional words, when compared to profiles with mild symptoms and depression. These analyses provide additional evidence for AIR being distinct from mood and attention problems. Profiles that include AIR symptoms possess unique characteristics, which may help differentiate them from other profiles.

Hate and meaning in life: How collective, but not personal, hate quells threat and spurs meaning in life

Classic and contemporary perspectives link meaning in life to the pursuit of a significant purpose, free from incoherence. The typical assumption is that these meaningful purposes are prosocial, or at least benign. Here, we tested whether hate might also bolster meaning in life, via motivational states underlying significant purpose and coherence. In two studies (N = 847; Study 2 pre-registered), describing hatred (vs. mere dislike) towards collective entities (societal phenomena, institutions, groups), but not individuals, heightened feelings linked to the behavioral approach system (BAS; eagerness, determination, enthusiasm), which underlies a sense of significant purpose, and muted feelings linked to threat and the behavioral inhibition system (BIS; confused, uncertain, conflicted), which underlies a sense of incoherence. This high BAS and low BIS, in turn, predicted meaning in life beyond pre-manipulation levels. Exploratory analyses suggested that personal hatreds did not have the meaning-bolstering effects that collective hatreds had due to meaning-dampening negative feelings. Discussion focuses on motivation for collective and ideological hatreds in threatening circumstances.

Evaluating the emotion regulation of positive mood states among people with bipolar disorder using hierarchical clustering.

BACKGROUNDPeople with bipolar disorder (BD) frequently struggle with the recurrence of affective symptoms. However, the interplay between coping mechanism and positive mood state remains under-researched.AIMTo explore the associations among behavioral approach system (BAS) sensitivity level, coping, and positive mood states among people with BD.METHODSUsing a cross-sectional study design, 90 participants with BD were presented with four BAS-activating life event scenarios and assessed with regard to their BAS trait sensitivity, coping flexibility, and mood states. A hierarchical clustering method was used to identify different groups with different styles of coping. Multiple hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to examine the mediating and moderating roles of different components of coping on mood states.RESULTSA three-cluster solution was found to best fit the present data set. The findings showed that a low mass of coping combined with low BAS sensitivity level protects people with BD from detrimentally accentuating mood states when they encounter BAS-activating life events. Moreover, coping flexibility is demonstrated to mediate and moderate the relationships between BAS sensitivity level and mood states. Specifically, subduing the perceived controllability and reducing the use of behavioral-activation/emotion-amplifying coping strategies could help buffer the effect of positive affect.CONCLUSIONThe judicious use of coping in emotion regulation for people with BD when encountering BAS-activating life events was indicated. Practical applications and theoretical implications are highlighted.

Examining momentary associations between behavioral approach system indices and nonsuicidal self-injury urges

BackgroundThe current study aimed to examine the concurrent and prospective relationships between the three hypothesized components of behavioral approach system (BAS) sensitivity: drive, reflecting the motivation to pursue one's desired goals; reward responsiveness, reflecting sensitivity to reward or reinforcement; and fun-seeking, reflecting the motivation for pursuing novel rewards in a spontaneous manner, and NSSI urge severity. MethodsA sample of 64 undergraduates with a history of repetitive NSSI completed an ecological momentary assessment protocol. During this period of time, participants reported on the BAS-constructs of drive, reward responsiveness, and fun-seeking, as well as NSSI urge severity on a momentary basis at three random intervals each day for a period of ten-days. ResultsDrive and reward responsiveness, but not fun-seeking, were concurrently positively associated with NSSI urge severity. However, no associations between BAS facets and prospective NSSI urges were found. LimitationsThis study was limited by its use of single items to assess the BAS-constructs of drive, reward responsiveness, and fun-seeking. ConclusionsOur findings indicate that feeling strongly impacted by rewards and having a strong sense of drive toward goal attainment may represent cognitive risk states that are associated with increased within-person NSSI risk. However, their lack of prospective prediction may suggest that these cognitive states are associated only on a momentary basis with NSSI urges and may not confer risk.

Personality and Cognitive Profiles of Animal-Assisted Intervention Dogs and Pet Dogs in an Unsolvable Task.

Simple SummaryDogs are genetically predisposed to communicate with humans in collaborative ways, and life experience enhances this ability. The role of canine personality on this predisposition is unknown. This study used a test where dogs encountered an unsolvable problem. The aim of the study was to understand whether dog personalities could predict their tendency to look at the owner, approach and engage with the task, and show distress during the task. We also compared dogs with life experience in Animal Assistance Interventions and dogs with no work, training, or sport experience. The results indicate that the dogs with a personality more sensitive to uncertain situations looked at the owner more and engaged less often with the task, suggesting they were expecting directions from the owner. Dogs with a personality more sensitive to obtaining rewards and avoiding punishment looked at the owner less often. Dogs with a high tendency to avoid punishment also abandoned and returned more often to the task, possibly as a sign of frustration. Finally, Animal-Assisted Intervention dogs looked more at the owner and had fewer task orientations, confirming the enhancing effect on looking. As personality differences reflect genetic predispositions, it is very important to know the role of personality on cognitive traits that are important to dogs that work and collaborate with humans.Dogs are biologically predisposed to communicate with humans in cooperative contexts. They show individual differences in dog–human communication and inhibition, potentially enhanced by life experience, e.g., Animal-Assisted Interventions. This study aimed to investigate whether dogs’ personality, defined by biologically meaningful neural circuits described in the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality (RST), predicted dogs’ communication, task orientation, emotional state, and approach of an unsolvable task. We also investigated the differences between dogs experienced in Animal-Assisted Interventions (AAI) and inexperienced dogs. The results indicated that a high sensitivity to the RST personality trait related to managing uncertainty (Behavioural Inhibition System, BIS) predicted fewer task orientations but increased referential and non-referential looking, which we interpreted as a way to obtain directions from the owner. Conversely, a high sensitivity to the traits reflecting tendencies to approach rewards (Behavioural Approach System, BAS) and avoid punishment (Fight–Flight–Freeze System, FFFS) predicted lower looking. High sensitivity to the FFFS also predicted more frequent task orientations, which we interpreted as frustration. Finally, the dogs in the AAI program looked more at their owner and were less oriented towards the task. These results provide empirical evidence of individual differences tied to the psychobiological personality traits in canine cognitive skills. Understanding such cognitive profiles may have an enormous impact on activities that rely upon dog–human collaborative interaction.

PERFECTIONISM IN THE CONTEXT OF THE REVISED REINFORCEMENT SENSITIVITY THEORY

The main goal of this research was to examine the role of personality traits in predicting the two aspects of perfectionism – maladaptive evaluation concerns and positive strivings. Personality traits were postulated by the Revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory, while the dimensions of perfectionism were defined by the Model of Perfectionism developed by Frost et al. The sample consisted of 299 students of the Faculty of Philosophy in Niš (79.3% were female), aged 19 to 29 years (M = 20.34; SD = 1.83). The instruments used were: the Reinforcement Sensitivity Questionnaire (RSQ), and the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS). The main takeaways of this research indicate that the Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS) is the strongest and positive correlate of maladaptive evaluation concerns, followed by Freeze and Fight. Unlike personality defence systems, the Behavioural Approach System (BAS) shows a negative correlation with the abovementioned criterion. The total percentage of explained variance for maladaptive evaluation concerns is 23%. When positive strivings are used as the criterion, BAS is seen as a positive correlate only in the first step of the hierarchical regression analysis. However, Flight and Fight represent consistent and positive correlates of this criterion. The total percentage of explained variance for positive strivings is 6.9%. The findings are consistent with the Revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory and available empirical findings from previous studies. Moreover, the results indicate that in the context of the abovementioned personality theory, maladaptive evaluation concerns and positive strivings can be understood as maladaptive forms of perfectionism, which deviates from previous understandings of perfectionism.

The Development of Mindfulness in Young Adults: the Relationship of Personality, Reinforcement Sensitivity, and Mindfulness

We report a pre-registered longitudinal study of emerging adults which examined the links between facets of mindfulness with Big Five and reinforcement sensitivity personality traits with the aim of exploring possible origins of individual differences in trait mindfulness. We investigated the relationship between personality, reinforcement sensitivity (including Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) and Behavioral Approach System (BAS)), and mindfulness in a sample of 227 undergraduate students across 8 months, using a random-intercept cross-lagged panel model. Mindfulness, in general, exhibited stronger longitudinal effects on personality than the other way around. We found reciprocal effects between reinforcement sensitivity and mindfulness facets: higher BAS-Goal-Drive Persistence positively predicted increased Acting with Awareness over time (B = 0.369 [.044, .693], p = .026) and higher Acting with Awareness predicted an increase in BAS-Goal-Drive Persistence (B = .173 [.041, .305], p = .010). Higher Non-Reacting Mindfulness predicted a reduction of BIS over time (B = − .132 [− .247, − .017], p = .025), with individuals with more skills to stay calm in emotional situations decreasing their reported levels of anxiety and emotional lability. Additionally, we found that higher Non-Judging mindfulness facets predicted an increase in Conscientiousness (B = .147 [.014, .280], p = .031). Finally, higher levels of Describing Mindfulness predicted an increase in Neuroticism over time (B = .200 [.034, .366], p = .018). Overall, our research findings indicate that mindfulness and personality share developmental trajectories over a 4-month period, suggesting avenues for possible personality development via Mindfulness interventions.

Enhancing creativity by altering the frontoparietal control network functioning using transcranial direct current stimulation

The left angular gyrus (AG), part of the frontotemporal network, is implicated in creative thinking, including verbal creativity tasks such as novel metaphor generation. The current study tested the effects of tDCS over the left AG on two metaphor generation tasks. The study was a randomized, double-blind, sham-controlled, crossover study of anodal vs. cathodal stimulation by tDCS. Compared to sham, cathodal stimulation resulted in significantly increased novel metaphor generation, while anodal stimulation increased conventional metaphor generation. Higher motivation (behavioral approach system's "fun-seeking") was associated with greater metaphor creativity in the sham condition, and lower fun seeking was associated with producing a greater quantity of conventional metaphors. Following active stimulation, motivation traits no longer contributed to creative metaphor generation. Thus, the beneficial effect of cathodal tDCS over the left AG in generation of novel metaphors is through restraining the control network. The current study gives a glimpse into the neural basis for creative thinking.

Social anxiety and rumination in the context of the revised reinforcement sensitivity theory and the mediation model of social anxiety

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between temperament, ruminative thought style and social anxiety using latent variable modeling. Before examining the integrated model that specifies the relations between the constructs, relevant measurement issues were examined. The study was conducted on a heterogeneous sample from the general population that included 1,029 participants (62.1% female) aged 19 to 79. The findings show that the Behavioural Inhibition System is the most important vulnerability factor for the development of social anxiety, and it has both a direct effect and an indirect one through the ruminative thought style. Also, Freeze has an additional contribution to the increased experience of social anxiety. The Behavioural Approach System has complex effects on social anxiety ? with a direct protective effect, and indirectly ? with a facilitation of the ruminative thought style. Thus, BAS can also act as a risk factor. The findings support the revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory and provide a basis for the extension of the Kimbrel?s Mediation Model of Social Anxiety.

Nicotine Dependence Severity and Revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory: Assessing the Mediating Role of Risky Decision Making Using Path Analysis

Background: Gray’s revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (r-RST) is a neuropsychological explanation of personality that has been broadly used in substance use disorders. Although the Behavioral Approach System (BAS) is strongly related to nicotine dependence, findings in Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) are controversial and there is little information about the role of the Fight/Flight/Freeze System (FFFS) in nicotine dependence. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the mediating role of Risky Decision Making (RDM) in this relationship to clarify the controversy and fill the gap. Methods: The final sample of this correlation study comprised of 347 university students (age, Mean±SD 23.2±6.7) who completed two self-report measures, including the Fagerstrom Test For Nicotine Dependence (FTND), Jackson-5 questionnaire of r-RST, and a computerized Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) to measure RDM. Pearson correlation and a path analysis framework were used to determine the simple, direct, and indirect effects of r-RST systems on nicotine dependence severity through RDM. Results: Using Amos, path analyses demonstrated significant direct and indirect effects of BAS and FFFS/BIS on tobacco use. Also, the relationship between BAS/FFFS/BIS and tobacco use was shown to be mediated by RDM. Conclusion: It was demonstrated that the relationship among BAS /FFFS/BIS and tobacco use can be partly explained using maladaptive RDM strategies, suggesting that decreasing reliance on decision-making in risky situations, while increasing the use of decision-making skills educations in risky situations, and increasing the use of alternative sensation and fun seeking by smoking and emotion regulation and mindfulness-based therapies

The role of reward sensitivity and childhood maltreatment in predicting nonsuicidal self-injury.

Findings from prior research on reward sensitivity in nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) have been mixed. Childhood maltreatment is an independent risk factor for NSSI and for hyposensitivity to rewards. This study aimed to disentangle the role of reward sensitivity as a predictor of NSSI for those with an elevated severity of childhood maltreatment. In a diverse undergraduate sample (N=586), trait reward sensitivity (i.e., behavioral approach system subscales) and the severity of maltreatment were assessed as predictors of a lifetime history of NSSI. In a subset of this sample (n=51), predictors of NSSI urge intensity were measured using ecological momentary assessment. Individuals with elevated maltreatment who reported less positive responsiveness to rewards were more likely to have a lifetime history of NSSI. Those with elevated maltreatment who reported a lower likelihood to approach rewards experienced more intense NSSI urges across the ten-day observation period. However, those with elevated maltreatment who reported a greater likelihood to approach rewards experienced less intense NSSI urges. The role of reward sensitivity as a cognitive risk factor for NSSI varies depending on childhood maltreatment history. Findings indicate that, for those with elevated maltreatment, hypersensitivity to approaching rewards may decrease risk for NSSI urges.

Resting EEG Asymmetry Markers of Multiple Facets of the Behavioral Approach System: A LORETA Analysis

Previously published models of frontal activity linked high relative left frontal activity to the behavioral approach system (BAS) and impulsivity. Additionally, these models did not account for BAS facets encompassing the anticipation of reward, i.e., goal-driven persistence (BAS–GDP) and reward interest (BAS–RI), from those that deal with the actual hedonic experience of reward, i.e., reward reactivity (BAS–RR) and impulsivity (BAS–I). Using resting electroencephalographic (EEG) recordings, the source localization (LORETA) method allowed us to calculate the hemispheric asymmetry of the current density within the alpha band (7.5–13 Hz) in ten regions of interest. Compared to low BAS subtrait scorers, high BAS subtrait scorers (except for BAS–I) were correlated with greater relative left-sided activity in the superior frontal gyrus (BA10). Further, an isolated effective coherence (iCOH) analysis of the beta activity (21 Hz) disclosed that high impulsive scorers as compared to low impulsive ones had higher connectivity between the superior frontal gyrus and middle temporal gyrus, which was not compensated for by enhanced inhibitory alpha (11 Hz) connectivity between these regions. For the beta frequency, we also found in highly impulsive individuals that (i) both left and right middle temporal lobes directly influenced the activity of the left and right superior frontal lobes, and (ii) a clear decoupling between left and right superior frontal lobes. These findings could indicate reduced control by the supervisory system in more impulsive individuals.

Sex Differences in the Association between Cortical Thickness and Children's Behavioral Inhibition.

To investigate sex differences in the association between cortical thickness and behavioral inhibition of 9-10 years old American children. This cross-sectional investigation used data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. Baseline ABCD data of 10249 American children between ages 9 and 10 were analyzed. The independent variable was cortical thickness measured by structural brain magnetic resonance imaging (sMRI). The primary outcome, behavioral inhibition, was measured based on the behavioral inhibition system (BIS), and behavioral approach system (BAS). Sex was the moderator. Age, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status indicators, and intracranial volume were covariates. In the overall sample, high cortical thickness was not associated with behavioral inhibition in children. Sex showed a statistically significant interaction with cortical thickness's effect on children's behavioral inhibition, net of all confounders. The interaction indicated a statistically stronger positive effect of high cortical thickness on male behavioral inhibition compared to female children. Cortical thickness is a determinant of behavioral inhibition for male but not female American children. Male but not female children show better behavioral inhabitation at higher levels of cortical thickness.

The Impact of Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory on Aggressive Behavior.

Why some people, and not others, exhibit aggression remains unknown. Research points to certain personality traits being linked to either proactive or reactive aggression, or both. The current study attempts to address these gaps from the perspective of revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (rRST). Using 146 participants, results revealed Behavioral Approach System (BAS)-Impulsivity and the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) predicted proactive and reactive aggression. Defensive Fight predicted reactive aggression. BAS-Impulsivity predicted proactive aggression partially mediated by Social Dominance Orientation. These findings suggest proactive and reactive aggression are motivated by a combination of anxiety and rapid, approach-motivational personality traits. This study provides further understanding of the specific relations between rRST and aggression, is integrated into the general aggression model, and has implications for treatment of aggressive individuals.

Enhancing Memory for Relationship Actions by Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation of the Superior Temporal Sulcus.

We examine the effect of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) of right superior temporal sulcus (rSTS) in memorization of approach/avoidance relationship-action sentences; for example, “Alejandro accepted/rejected Marta in his group.” Sixty-five university students participated in a tDCS study, in which a between-subjects design was adopted. Sixty-four participants were also given the behavioral approach system (BAS) and behavioral inhibition system (BIS) scales. Participants were subjected to 20 min of stimulation: anodal (N = 24), cathodal (N = 21), or sham (N = 20); subsequently, they were given a list of 40 sentences (half approach and half avoidance) and told to try to memorize them. Finally, they performed a changed/same memory task (half the sentences were the “same” and half were “changed”). Previously, we had examined performance in the memory task without tDCS with another group of participants (N = 20). We found that anodal stimulation improved d’ index of discriminability (hits-false alarms) compared to sham and cathodal conditions for both approach and avoidance sentences. Moreover, the comparison between anodal and task-alone performance showed that stimulation improved d’ index of approach sentences more, as task-alone performance showed better discrimination for avoidance than for approach. Likewise, we explored a potential modulation of tDCS effect by (BAS) and (BIS) traits. We found that d’ index improvement in anodal stimulation condition only benefited low BAS and low BIS participants. Implications of these results are discussed in the context of rSTS function in encoding and memorizing verbally described intentional relationship-actions and the role of individual differences on modulating tDCS effect.

African American Children's Diminished Returns of Subjective Family Socioeconomic Status on Fun Seeking.

Background: Reward sensitivity (fun-seeking) is a risk factor for a wide range of high-risk behaviors. While high socioeconomic status (SES) is known to reduce reward sensitivity and associated high-risk behaviors, less is known about the differential effects of SES on reward sensitivity. It is plausible to expect weaker protective effects of family SES on reward sensitivity in racial minorities, a pattern called Minorities’ Diminished Returns (MDRs). Aim: We compared Caucasian and African American (AA) children for the effects of subjective family SES on children’s fun-seeking. Methods: This was a cross-sectional analysis of 7061 children from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. The independent variable was subjective family SES. The main outcome was children’s fun-seeking measured by the behavioral approach system (BAS) and behavioral avoidance system (BIS). Age, gender, marital status, and household size were the covariates. Results: In the overall sample, high subjective family SES was associated with lower levels of fun-seeking. We also found a statistically significant interaction between race and subjective family SES on children’s fun-seeking in the overall sample, suggesting that high subjective family SES is associated with a weaker effect on reducing fun-seeking among AA than Caucasian children. In race-stratified models, high subjective family SES was protective against fun-seeking of Caucasian but not AA children. Conclusion: Subjective family SES reduces the fun-seeking for Caucasian but not AA children.

Factores asociados al consumo de drogas en prisioneros mexicanos

Hyperactivity in the Behavioral Approach System (BAS) and hypoactivity in the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) are related to substance use and antisocial personality disorders, andan inherent variable is impulsivity. Objective: To determine the association between BIS / BAS systems, impulsivity and types of crime, with drug consumption. Method: quantitative crosssectional and correlational research. Sample: 175 Persons Deprived of Liberty. Instruments: BIS / BAS Plutchik Impulsivity Scale and a specific questionnaire was developed to evaluate sociodemographic variables. A significant correlation was found between drug use, crime (p .002) and impulsivity (p <.001), as well as other prison variables linked to consumption. No association was found between BIS / BAS systems and drug consumption.

Associations of behavioral inhibition system with negatively biased social cognitions: Moderation by the behavioral approach system

Using the behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and behavioral approach system (BAS) subscales of the BIS/BAS Scales (Carver & White, 1994), this study examined how the association of the BIS and the negatively biased social cognitions of social comparison, social ineptness, negative self-statements, and fear of negative evaluation, were moderated by BAS-Drive and BAS-Reward Responsiveness. A total of 302 (males = 101, females = 201) adults (age ranging from 18 to 65 years) from the general community completed questionnaires covering the different study variables. The findings indicted moderation by BAS-D for the predictions of social comparison, social ineptness, and negative self-statements, and moderation by BAS-RR for the predictions of social ineptness, negative self-statements, and fear of negative evaluation. For moderation effects, moderation was present at lower levels of BAS-D, and at higher levels of BAS-RR.

Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality Questionnaire: Factor Structure Based on CFA and ESEM, and Associations with ADHD

Revised reinforcement sensitivity theory (r-RST) of personality is a major neuropsychological theory of motivation, emotion and personality. This paper presents the results of a study examining: (1) the factor structure of the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality Questionnaire (RST-PQ) using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM); and (2) the relationships of the r-RST constructs in the RST-PQ with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptom groups of inattention (IA) and hyperactivity/impulsivity (HI). A total of 572 (Sample 1) and 309 (Sample 2) adults completed the RST-PQ. Participants in Sample 2 also completed a questionnaire measuring ADHD symptoms. Results revealed more support for the ESEM model with six factors than the CFA model. For both the ESEM and CFA models, both IA and HI symptom groups were associated positively with the RST-PQ constructs of behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and behavioral approach system (BAS) Impulsivity, with IA also associated negatively with the BAS-Goal-Drive Persistence. The theoretical implications of these findings for understanding the factor structure of the RST-PQ, and for ADHD (IA and HI) in terms of r-RST, are discussed.