Behavior Of 316L Stainless Steel Research Articles

Contribution of the Self‐Heating Method in the Characterization of the Fatigue Damage of Materials With Defects Resulting From Additive Manufacturing

ABSTRACTThis paper investigates the ability of the self‐heating method to characterize the fatigue behavior of 316L stainless steel produced by Laser Powder Bed Fusion. Nearly dense cylinders are built vertically using various process parameters corresponding to various volumetric energy densities. Fatigue specimens are then machined from these cylinders and polished. Fully reversed tension–compression fatigue tests (R = −1) are conducted. The self‐heating method is used for the estimation of the fatigue limits. These fatigue limits are compared to results obtained from S‐N curves in the high cycle regime. Whatever the set of process parameters, the self‐heating curves show three distinct domains of heat dissipation. Thanks to microstructure analysis, fractographic observations, and correlations with S–N curves, these domains can be closely linked to damage mechanisms associated or not with defects.

Tribological Behavior of 316L Stainless Steel Fabricated Using Metal Extrusion Additive Manufacturing Under Dry and Simulated Body Fluid‐Lubricated Conditions

Herein, the tribological behavior of 316L stainless steel (SS) fabricated using metal extrusion additive manufacturing (MEAM) is investigated both under dry and simulated body fluid (SBF)‐lubricated conditions. The results and mechanisms are compared with those of 316L SS fabricated via selective laser melting (SLM) and hot rolling (HR). Under dry‐friction conditions, the 316L SS fabricated via MEAM shows inferior tribological performance compared with those fabricated via SLM and HR, primarily because of its lower initial hardness and better plasticity, which increase both abrasive and adhesive wear. Under SBF‐lubricated conditions, the tribological performance of the 316L SS fabricated via MEAM is comparable to that fabricated via HR and superior to that fabricated via SLM. The wear rate of the MEAM‐fabricated 316L SS is 16.8% and 3.2% lower than SLM‐ and HR‐fabricated, respectively. The numerous pores on 316L SS serve as traps for wear particles, which contribute to the reduction of three‐body wear. In terms of wear under SBF‐lubricated conditions, MEAM technology appears to be a promising method for the fabrication of customized 316L orthopedic implants.

Corrosion behavior of 316L stainless steel reinforced by dispersed yttria stabilized zirconia fabricated by spark plasma sintering

This paper evaluates the corrosion behavior of 316L stainless steel (SS316L) matrix composites reinforced with 3% yttria-doped zirconia (3Y·ZrO2), fabricated using the spark plasma sintering. Four different compositions were produced (SS316L, SS316L-5%vol. 3Y.ZrO2, SS316L-10% vol. 3Y.ZrO2, and SS316L-20% vol. 3Y.ZrO2) and primarily assessed for their corrosion resistance evaluated via immersion tests and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Additionally, densification, surface morphology, microstructure and mechanical properties were characterized as complementary. Densification was measured using the Archimedes method, while surface and microstructural characteristics were analyzed using optical and scanning electron microscopy. Mechanical properties were determined through microhardness testing. The results indicate that higher 3Y·ZrO2 content decreases densification and induces porosity, which contributes to localized corrosion. Despite the presence of porosity, microhardness improved with increasing 3Y·ZrO2 content. Additionally, immersion and EIS tests revealed that 5% of 3Y·ZrO2 enhances corrosion resistance. However, in composites with 10% and 20% 3Y·ZrO2, porosity compromises corrosion resistance by degrading passivation. Notably, composites with 5% 3Y·ZrO2 demonstrated significantly better corrosion resistance compared to pure SS316L and the other compositions, highlighting their potential for practical applications.

Role of Te-RE alloying on the passive film and pitting corrosion behavior of 316L stainless steel

This work reports the mechanism of corrosion resistance enhancement of 316 L stainless steel after Te-RE alloying. The individual MnS inclusions are replaced by composite inclusions, resulting in a reduced risk of pitting corrosion. The decrease of inclusion amount and Volta potential difference between inclusion and matrix induced by the addition of Te/La promoted the stability of the inclusions and lessened the active sites for pitting corrosion. TeO2 formed in the passive film with Te treatment could be easily reduced by Cr and Mo, and resulting in a significant increasing of MoO2 and Cr2O3 content in the passive film. This enhanced the stability of the passive film. Te and RE exhibited a synergistic effect on the increase of Cr and Mo in the passive film, resulting in a further improvement of the passive film. However, RE could not exist in the passive film stably due to its poor thermodynamic stability of the rare earth oxides, and only acted as a bridge for the formation of Cr and Mo oxides.

Influence of Deformation-Induced Martensite on Non-masing Behavior of 304L Stainless Steel

Influence of Deformation-Induced Martensite on Non-masing Behavior of 304L Stainless Steel

Micro-macro relationship between microstructure and mechanical behavior of 316L stainless steel fabricated using L-PBF additive manufacturing

Micro-macro relationship between microstructure and mechanical behavior of 316L stainless steel fabricated using L-PBF additive manufacturing

A comparison of conventional and additively manufactured 316L under thermomechanical fatigue

The present study compares the thermomechanical fatigue (TMF) behaviour of 316L stainless steel manufactured conventionally by hot rolling and additively by laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF). Machined cylindrical specimens were tested under strain-controlled in-phase and out-of-phase TMF loading at a temperature range of 550–750 °C and total mechanical strain amplitudes of εamech = 0.2–0.6 %. While the conventional 316L significantly outperforms the L-PBF 316L under in-phase TMF, their lifetimes are comparable under out-of-phase TMF. Under in-phase TMF, creep damage in the form of intergranular crack networks occurs which is significantly more pronounced for the L-PBF 316L due to the higher amount of interfaces. Under out-of-phase TMF, the damage is mostly due to stress-assisted oxide cracking and the crack propagation is fatigue-dominated. TEM inspection revealed that L-PBF 316L exhibits a cellular dislocation structure in the initial state, which rearranges only slightly during cycling. For conventional 316L similar dislocation cells form during TMF cycling indicating that they represent a stable dislocation arrangement in 316L under TMF loading. This is evidenced by the rather stable cyclic stress response of the L-PBF material when compared to the conventional material.

Experimental investigation of creep behavior along the build height of stainless-steel 316L fabricated via selective laser melting

The aim of this study was to contribute to the existing knowledge on the creep behavior of 316L stainless steel (SS) produced through selective laser melting (SLM). Creep tests were conducted on samples extracted from the wall in the build direction at 650 °C under various load conditions using a small punch (SP) creep test machine. The results revealed that the creep response was anisotropic and strongly dependent on the building height of the cubic block. Specifically, the average creep life was approximately three and five times higher in the bottom region than that in the top and middle regions, respectively. This indicates that the middle region was more susceptible to creep damage, resulting in inferior creep resistance, whereas the bottom region exhibited higher creep resistance. Interrupted tests were performed to elucidate variations in the internal creep damage level. The creep-damage mechanism was assessed based on the geometrically-necessary dislocations (GNDs) density and characteristics of the melt pool boundary (MPB). Additionally, creep tests demonstrated that SS316L stainless steel manufactured by SLM processing has an inferior creep life compared with conventional SS316L material, a phenomenon that can be attributed to the nano-sized cell structure and average grain size boundaries.

Influence of Water Radiolysis on the Passive Properties of 316L-Stainless Steel.

This work aims to study the effect of radiolytic species induced by water radiolysis on the passive behavior of 316L stainless steel. For this purpose, the stainless steel/neutral and aerated 0.02 M Na2SO4, electrolyte solution interface was irradiated with proton beams. A wide range of energies between 2 and 16 MeV was selected, varying the maximum of the energy deposition between 0.5 and 122 μm in water from the interface. The irradiation experiments were performed at the CEMHTI cyclotron in Orléans and the 4 MV Van de Graaff accelerator at IP2I in Lyon (France). A dedicated irradiation device implemented with a 3-electrode cell dedicated to perform electrochemical measurements allows to measure the surface reactivity of the stainless steel as a function of the irradiation conditions. Results show that whatever the beam energy, the corrosion potential remains unchanged. It indicates that the very short-lived, highly reactive radiolytic species drive the corrosion potential and not only the recombination products such H2O2 or H2. The stainless steel remains in the passive state whatever the irradiation conditions. However, it is shown that, during irradiation, the passive film is less protective. This evolution is attributed to radiolysis of bound water molecules in the passive film.

Understanding the strain localization in additively manufactured materials: Micro-scale tensile tests and crystal plasticity modeling

Metallic parts fabricated by additive manufacturing (AM) usually exhibit unique microstructures and non-negligible residual stresses compared with the counterparts produced by conventional manufacturing. These inherent microstructural factors strongly affect the mechanical response of the as-built AM parts. In this study, we focus on the strain localization behavior of 316L stainless steel produced by laser powder-bed-fusion. In-situ tensile tests under a scanning electron microscope are performed, and the digital image correlation method is used to measure the strain distribution combined with electron backscatter diffraction. Meanwhile, a dislocation-based crystal plasticity finite element model incorporating residual stresses is developed to study the origins of the strain localization in the AM material. The results indicate that strain localization in AM materials is closely associated with microstructural features, encompassing behaviors related to slip activities, interactions with neighboring grains and dislocation evolutions. Additionally, the columnar grain features also render the strain distribution sensitive to the loading direction. The strain localization is serious in some small grains with high residual stresses, while in large grains the effect is less significant. These factors collectively contribute to the increasing likelihood of strain localization occurring in the AM microstructures with heterogeneous grain size and texture distribution. This work provides detailed insights into the strain localization in AM materials and would facilitate the manufacturing parameter optimization of AM materials by tuning the microstructure to reduce deformation inhomogeneity.

The Gradient Effect on Cyclic Behavior of 316L Stainless Steel in the Ultrasonic Bending Test.

Nanoindentation measurements were conducted to investigate the high-cycle response of 316L stainless steel in bending fatigue. Hardness variation owing to the gradient flexure stress amplitude for different curvatures was plotted along with the thickness and length, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was subsequently conducted to explore the deformation characteristics in multiple layers, which had cyclic gradient stress, on the cross-section of specimens. The nanoindentation results indicated that the cyclic hardening response of 316L stainless steel is correlated with the level of stress amplitude in the high-cycle fatigue (HCF) regime. Furthermore, an analytical model was proposed to clarify the relationship between nanohardness and stress amplitude. Finally, the evolution of damage accumulation due to irreversible plastic deformation is continuous during stress reduction up to the neighboring zone at the neutral surface of the flexure beam in some individual grains.

Damage behavior of additive manufacturing 316L stainless steel irradiated with Fe ions

The irradiation damage behavior of 316L stainless steel (SS) fabricated using selective laser melting (SLM) and traditional manufacturing (TM) was investigated in terms of microstructural changes in hardness and swelling at RT under irradiation with 3 MeV Fe ions at doses of 0.3 to 6 dpa. At a dose of 6 dpa, the swelling heights of the SLM and TM samples were 39.1 nm and 30.7 nm, respectively, corresponding to swelling rates of 3.0 % and 2.4 %. The irradiated SLM 316L SS exhibited a lower degree of hardening at continuous fluences than the TM 316L SS. At a dose of 6 dpa, the hardening rates of the SLM and TM 316L SS specimens were 102.1 % and 84.1 %, respectively. Furthermore, TEM results showed that the density of dislocation loops in the TM 316L SS was 8.36 × 1023/m3 while that in the SLM 316L SS was 6.15 × 1023/m3. The average sizes of the dislocation loops were 1.35 and 1.22 nm, respectively. According to calculations using the dispersed barrier hardening (DBH) model, the dislocation loops were the primary factor influencing the irradiation hardening behavior. Under Fe-ion irradiation at RT, SLM 316L SS showed superior resistance to irradiation hardening and swelling compared with TM 316L SS.

Effect of Laser Shock Peening on Electrochemistry and Wettability of Additively Manufactured Stainless Steel

Abstract Laser shock peening (LSP) is investigated for its use in altering the electrochemical and wetting behavior of 316L stainless steel made with laser powder bed fusion (LPBF). The corrosion performance of LPBF stainless steel varies between studies and build parameters, thus motivating the search for postprocessing methods that enable wetted surface applications. Compressive surface stress has been demonstrated to reduce corrosion rate in additively manufactured metal and LSP is known to impart compressive residual stress into metal targets. Wettability also affects corrosion behavior and LSP induces hydrophobicity. LSP is therefore a promising tool for improving corrosion behavior of LPBF stainless steel. This paper examines the electrochemical properties of LPBF stainless steel before and after LSP with electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and potentiokinetic measurements. Contact angle, surface free energy, and surface finish are studied with dynamic contact angle measurements and profilometry. X-ray diffraction and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy measures residual stress and surface chemistry. The top surface perpendicular to the build direction (XY) and the wall surface parallel with the build direction (XZ) are studied for all measurements due to the large differences in roughness and mechanical properties between these surfaces. LSP increases pitting potential for both XY and XZ surfaces and causes an increase to the surface electrochemical impedance. LSP also increases the contact angle of liquids on both surfaces. These changes to electrochemistry and wettability are attributed in part to surface morphology and surface chemistry alterations as well as the inducement of compressive residual stress.

Effects of pressurized water reactor environment and cyclic loading parameters on the low cycle fatigue behavior of 304L stainless steel

Austenitic stainless steels used in light water reactor coolant environments are susceptible to environmentally assisted fatigue due to non-monotonic loading conditions, primarily associated with load-follow, thermal transients, or intermittent plant shutdowns and start-ups. This study investigates the effects of a high-temperature pressurized water reactor (PWR) water environment and cyclic loading parameters on the low cycle fatigue behavior of austenitic 304L stainless steel. Prolonged exposure to a PWR environment and cyclic loading conditions such as a lower strain rate or a higher fraction of slow strain rate enhances the initiation and accelerates the crack growth rate of fatigue cracks, resulting in decreased fatigue life. The deformation-induced α'-martensite is observed in proximity to fatigue crack tips primarily in specimens tested in simulated PWR primary water, while cellular dislocation structures are more frequently observed near crack tips in specimens tested in high-temperature air. The deformation-induced martensitic transformation from γ-austenite to α'-martensite, occurring via the precursor ε-martensite phase, contributes to the accelerated fatigue crack growth rate in a PWR environment with hydrogen.

Effect of heat treatment and electroless Ni-P coating on mechanical property and corrosion behaviour of 316L stainless steel fabricated by laser powder bed fusion

ABSTRACT With the prosperity of laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) technology, post-processing tends to be increasingly attractive in further improving the performance of the LPBFed parts. In this study, post-heat treatment and electroless plating were performed on the LPBFed 316L stainless steel to investigate the evolution of surface topography, mechanical property and corrosion behaviour. The results show that the as-built part features melt tracks and fine cellular substructures, which presents higher deformation resistance than the cast and recrystallized counterparts. The uniform amorphous Ni-P coating can significantly increase microhardness of as-built 316L stainless steel from ∼300 to ∼800 HV. In addition, the as-built parts with/without coatings have better corrosion resistance than the corresponding cast ones, which can be further improved through 450°C annealing. Moreover, the coatings can also prevent the localised corrosion effectively. Therefore, this study provides available post-processing methods for further improve the performance of LPBFed 316L stainless steel.

Understanding Melt Pool Behavior of 316L Stainless Steel in Laser Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing.

In the laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing process, the quality of fabrications is intricately tied to the laser-matter interaction, specifically the formation of the melt pool. This study experimentally examined the intricacies of melt pool characteristics and surface topography across diverse laser powers and speeds via single-track laser scanning on a bare plate and powder bed for 316L stainless steel. The results reveal that the presence of a powder layer amplifies melt pool instability and worsens irregularities due to increased laser absorption and the introduction of uneven mass from the powder. To provide a comprehensive understanding of melt pool dynamics, a high-fidelity computational model encompassing fluid dynamics, heat transfer, vaporization, and solidification was developed. It was validated against the measured melt pool dimensions and morphology, effectively predicting conduction and keyholing modes with irregular surface features. Particularly, the model explained the forming mechanisms of a defective morphology, termed swell-undercut, at high power and speed conditions, detailing the roles of recoil pressure and liquid refilling. As an application, multiple-track simulations replicate the surface features on cubic samples under two distinct process conditions, showcasing the potential of the laser-matter interaction model for process optimization.

Building rate effect on microstructure and high temperature mechanical properties of Austenitic 316L stainless steel manufactured by laser directed energy deposition

Improving the build rate of additive manufacturing (AM) processes has been of great industrial interest to enhance productivity, reduce costs and increase efficiency. Increasing the build rate in AM is typically achieved by optimizing the process parameters. However, the impacts of these process parameters changes on the resulting microstructure and high temperature mechanical performance in AM is not yet understood. The present study highlights that increasing the build rate, achieved by enlarging the laser beam diameter and laser power while maintaining the energy density, influences the microstructure, tensile properties, and creep behaviour of 316L stainless steel processed using laser directed energy deposition (LDED). Results demonstrate that nearly fully dense LDED samples were achieved at various deposition conditions. Remarkably, LDED samples produced with an increase build rate exhibited superior tensile properties at high temperature and enhanced creep performance. Regarding anisotropy, a lower build rate with optimized process parameters promoted the formation of a finer and more anisotropic microstructure, resulting in significant anisotropy in creep behaviour. In contrast, a higher build rate yielded a uniform microstructure, leading to uniform creep behaviour across different orientations. This study highlights the potential of LDED for achieving superior and uniform high temperature mechanical performance through an increased build rate.

Effect of heat treatment on the microstructure and pitting corrosion behavior of 316L stainless steel fabricated by different additive manufacturing methods (L-PBF versus L-DED): Comparative investigation exploring the role of microstructural features on passivity

This work explores the relation between microstructural features and pitting corrosion resistance of additively manufactured 316 L stainless steel. Specimens fabricated using two different laser-based manufacturing processes (L-PBF and L-DED) were studied in as-built and heat-treated conditions following a comparative approach. Potentiodynamic polarization tests and corrosion morphology analysis served to evaluate their corrosion resistance and passive behavior. This work shows that, contrary to previous reports, the absence of MnS inclusions or presence of the microsegregation structure are not the main factors enhancing passivity of these materials. Instead, dislocation density was the only microstructural feature matching the trend in their passivity behavior.

Elastoplastic Behavior of 316L Stainless Steel (SS) and the Analysis of the Ratcheting Phenomenon Under Cyclic Loading

The present work is concerned with the evaluation of the nonlinear behaviour of 316L steel used in several fields, industry, automotive, aeronautics, medicine .... subjected to cyclic movements. This investigation allowed us to analyze the different responses of steel in low cycle fatigue, and to perceive the phenomenon of Ratcheting leading, to the damage of the structure by an excess of plastic strain, under loading cycles. The prediction of the behaviour of the steel studied, reveals that the Ratcheting increases according to the average stress when the stress amplitude is constant, and decreases according to the attenuation of the stress amplitude when the average stress is constant. The simulation campaign allowed us to present an assessment, of the conditions favoring the acceleration of the Ratcheting, includes several scenarios of periodic loadings, with strain and stress imposed under uniaxial tension/compression. The predictions of this model are evaluated by subjected to cyclic loading within the software ZébuLon.

Influence of Surface Finish on the Dry Sliding Wear and Electrochemical Corrosion Behaviour of 316L Stainless Steel

316L stainless steel is known for its high corrosion resistance and extensively being used for biomedical implants and for the fabrication of the parts in nuclear reactors, and fuel cells. In the current study, 316L stainless steel samples were grounded using different grades of surface grits (400, 1200, and mirror-finished) by mechanical polishing, and influence of surface finish on the wear and corrosion characteristics was studied. The dry sliding wear experiments were carried out on ball-on-plate setup against hardened steel ball and the corresponding friction curves were obtained and specific wear rates were measured. The wear mechanisms were identified by examining the worn-out surface using scanning electron microscope and Raman spectrometer. It was evident that the formation and removal of iron oxides is the dominant mechanism for material loss from the samples during wear tests. The higher wear resistance of the mirror-finished sample was attributed to the formation of stable chromium oxide layer on the wear track. Potentiodynamic polarization tests were performed on the samples and better corrosion resistance was observed for the mirror-finished sample.