Inmate Behavior Research Articles

PRISON OFFICER LEGITIMACY, THEIR EXERCISE OF POWER, AND INMATE RULE BREAKING*

AbstractPrison officers are directly responsible for transmitting penal culture and prison policy to the confined, yet few studies of officers’ impact on inmate behavior have been conducted. We examined the effect of inmates’ perceptions of officer legitimacy on rule breaking within prisons, as well as the effects of officers’ reliance on different power bases on rates of rule breaking across prisons. The findings from bi‐level analyses of data from inmates and officers from 33 prisons revealed that inmates who held stronger views regarding officer legitimacy committed fewer nonviolent infractions but that perceived legitimacy did not affect the number of violent offenses inmates committed. We also examined a subsample of inmates encountered by officers for a rule violation and found no relationship between perceived legitimacy and subsequent rule breaking, although stronger perceptions of procedural justice related to the incident did directly and indirectly (through perceived legitimacy) coincide with lower odds of nonviolent misconduct. At the prison level, we found that prisons in which officers exercised their authority more lawfully and fairly (positional power) or by relying more on their skills and expertise (expert power) had lower rates of violent or nonviolent rule violations. Prisons in which officers relied more on coercion had higher levels of nonviolent infractions.

Sexual Violence Among Male Inmates.

Inmate misconduct has been a widely studied topic for many decades. General studies of misconduct have found that there are certain factors that contribute to misconduct, including age, gender, sentence length, and facility type. Few studies, however, have examined the factors predicting sexual offenses in a prison conduct. Although many studies of victims of sexual offenses in prison have been conducted, there is a lack of studies examining the perpetrators of prison sexual violence. The current study attempted to expand this body of literature by examining the correlates of sexual misconduct among a sample of male inmates incarcerated in the state of North Carolina during 2010. Deprivation and importation theories of inmate behavior were used to guide the analysis, and measures of deprivation and importation factors were both included in the analytical models. Findings indicate that Black, nonmarried, younger inmates, who had more previous incarcerations and had been incarcerated longer, had greater odds of having a sexual infraction. Additional findings, as well as policy implications, are discussed.

Building with no end in sight: the theory and effects of prison architecture

ABSTRACT The rise of mass incarceration necessitated increased investment in prisons. This increase occurred alongside of policy maker calls for greater government accountability and reliance on evidence-based practices. Despite advances in the understanding of “what works” to reduce crime and recidivism, a notable gap in research exists: What is the evidence that prison architecture influences inmate behavior or reentry outcomes? This article seeks to address that gap and argues that (1) prisons are designed to achieve specific goals, (2) there is minimal empirical evidence that variation in architecture achieves these goals, and (3) the theory by which architecture achieves these goals is inconsistent and unclear. Implications of this assessment for research, theory, and policy are discussed.

“A Very Important Yet Complicated Matter”

Informant networks were an integral feature of the Soviet Gulag. This article sheds light on their size, structure, recruitment methods, aims, and results using archival documentation primarily from the Estonian ssr. Focusing on the Khrushchev era, it demonstrates that although the regime placed high value on the networks as a way of fighting crime and managing inmate behavior, various factors mitigated against the realization of these goals. In the end, the networks were used by local administrators not to create institutions of strict disciplinary order as instructions from central authorities dictated, but rather to help cultivate the “customary order” that penal officials globally strive for: a modus vivendi between inmates and administrators that tolerates some infractions of penal regulations by the former and an acceptable level of corruption by the latter.

Analyzing the Heterogeneous Nature of Inmate Behavior: Trajectories of Prison Misconduct

Researchers have long been interested in stability and changes in offending patterns between and within individuals during the life-course. Using data from the Oregon Department of Corrections and the Oregon State Police, the current study explores misconduct trajectories and also attempts to determine whether certain preprison inmate characteristics specified in the importation model are associated with various misconduct trajectories. Results indicate that there are subgroups of inmates engaged in different patterns of institutional misconduct during the course of years of imprisonment. In addition, certain inmate characteristics can be used to explain the identified heterogeneity in inmate misconduct. Findings from trajectory analyses can be useful to prison officials and policy makers when planning prison services, assistance, and programming for subgroups of inmates.

The Path of Least Desistance: Inmate Compliance and Recidivism

Scholars have speculated that inmate behavior may provide a signal about the probability of desistance. One such signal may be the successful avoidance of prison infractions or the cessation of them during the course of incarceration. Drawing on studies of prison socialization, recidivism, and desistance, we assess whether patterns of inmate misconduct throughout the course of incarceration provide insight into the likelihood of a successful transition back into society. Specifically, using data on a cohort of state prisoners, this study examines whether, after controlling for potential confounders, inmate misconduct trajectories predict recidivism. The analyses indicate both that unique misconduct trajectories can be identified and that these trajectories predict the probability of recidivism and desistance net of factors associated with recidivism. Results of the study lend support to scholarship on desistance and signaling, which emphasizes the salience of in-prison experiences for understanding reentry and, in particular, reoffending.

The implications of sentence length for inmate adjustment to prison life

PurposePrison scholarship suggests that the structural and cultural environment of prison and dimensions individuals “import” with them into prison have salient implications for inmate adjustment to incarceration. Theoretical and empirical analyses of inmate adjustment to prison life, however, have paid limited attention to sentencing characteristics like prison sentence length. This paper presents theoretical arguments that suggest sentence length likely influences inmate adjustment, and proposes that mixed effects in prior studies may be attributed to analyses that do not account for nonlinearities and conditional effects. MethodsWe use data on 35,582 convicted felony offenders admitted to Florida state prisons, and estimate a series of regression models to assess the influence of sentence length on inmate adjustment. ResultsAnalyses indicate that sentence length influences inmate behavior, that its association with misconduct may take on an inverted “U-shape,” and that its effect is less salient for younger inmates and inmates incarcerated for the first time. ConclusionResults extend theoretical discussions of inmate adjustment, and underscore the need to more systematically test and incorporate court sentencing experiences and outcomes when examining patterns of inmate misbehavior in prison.

Behind Bars: Experiences Conducting Behavioral Addictions Research in a County Jail.

Individuals who are incarcerated experience disparities in mental health, warranting study by nurse researchers. However, nurse researchers' unfamiliarity with the jail environment may pose a barrier to conducting research with this vulnerable population. The current article presents an account of the planning and implementation needed to study perceived health and gambling behavior in county jail inmates. The challenges and rewards of research that aim to better understand the mental health issues affecting this population are also identified. Developing relationships with jail personnel and understanding the incarcerated population and their surroundings are key to conducting research in this environment.

Maximum Security Correctional Officers: An Exploratory Investigation into Their Social Bases of Power

Correctional officers are responsible for maintaining prison order, establishing institutional security and managing inmate behavior. To accomplish these goals, officers are sometimes required to deploy available bases of power, which are mechanisms of behavioral control used to achieve certain objectives, and include reward, referent, legitimate, coercive and expert. While power bases have been researched at length across numerous organizational settings, they have received comparatively less attention within corrections. Using questionnaire data from a statewide population of maximum security correctional officers (N = 559), several ordered logistic regression models were estimated in order to explore the power bases upon which officers rely the most, as well as the antecedents to this decision. Referent and legitimate power ranked highest concerning their ability to control inmates, while measures of officer risk perceptions and work-related attitudes significantly predicted their power base reliance. To ensure inmate compliance with institutional regulations, it is recommended that correctional officers utilize softer forms of power such as referent and legitimate.

An empirical test of the social support paradigm on male inmate society

ABSTRACTWhile social support theory has been applied to a variety of criminal justice settings, there has been little empirical research on the effect of social support on inmate behavior. In this article, we test Cullen’s proposition that social support, in whatever form it manifests itself, has an effect on Korean inmates’ experiences. Specifically, we examine whether social support in an all-male prison environment explains inmate misconduct, victimization, fear of victimization, and the intent to commit crime in the future. We build upon previous research by using unique measures of the instrumental and the expressive dimensions of social support to determine their effect on reducing criminogenic engagement in a prison setting. The results indicate that social support is an important factor in reducing prison violence, enhancing pro-social behavior, and potentially reducing recidivism.

Exploring the Effect of Exposure to Short-Term Solitary Confinement Among Violent Prison Inmates

This study tracked the behavior of male inmates housed in the general inmate populations of 70 different prison units from a large southern state. Each of the inmates studied engaged in violent misconduct at least once during the first 2 years of incarceration (n = 3,808). The goal of the study was to isolate the effect of exposure to short-term solitary confinement (SC) as a punishment for their initial act of violent behavior on the occurrence and timing of subsequent misconduct. This study relied upon archival longitudinal data and employed a multilevel counterfactual research design (propensity score matching) that involved tests for group differences, event history analyses, and trajectory analyses. The results suggest that exposure to short-term solitary confinement as a punishment for an initial violence does not appear to play a role in increasing or decreasing the probability, timing, or development future misconduct for this particular group on inmates. Upon validation, these findings call for continued research and perhaps a dialog regarding the utility of solitary confinement policies under certain contexts. This unique study sets the stage for further research to more fully understand how solitary impacts post-exposure behavior.

Who Gets Visited in Prison? Individual- and Community-Level Disparities in Inmate Visitation Experiences

Scholarship has shown that visitation helps individuals maintain social ties during imprisonment, which, in turn, can improve inmate behavior and reduce recidivism. Not being visited can result in collateral consequences and inequality in punishment. Few studies, however, have explored the factors associated with visitation. This study uses data on Florida inmates to identify individual- and community-level factors that may affect visitation. Consistent with expectations derived from prior theory and research, the study finds that inmates who are older, Black, and who have been incarcerated more frequently experience less visitation. In addition, inmates who come from areas with higher incarceration rates and higher levels of social altruism experience more visits. Unexpectedly, however, sentence length and economic disadvantage are not associated with visitation. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Major mental illness and violence history as predictors of institutional misconduct and recidivism: Main and interaction effects.

The purpose of this study was to ascertain whether major mental illness (MMI) and violence history (VH) interact in their effect on institutional misconduct and recidivism. MMI and VH were measured in two overlapping groups of male medium security federal prisoners and correlated with institutional misconduct and recidivism. Age and the main effect of MMI were significant predictors of general and aggressive infractions in 2,627 male prison inmates before the MMI × VH interaction term was entered into a Cox regression equation. Once the interaction term was entered into the equation, the MMI × VH interaction predicted relative hazard (risk) but neither main effect (MMI, VH) was significant. There was no interaction effect, however, when age, prior substance abuse, MMI, VH, and the MMI × VH interaction were used to predict general and aggressive recidivism in a group of 1,163 male inmates previously released from custody. Age and the VH main effect achieved significance in both recidivism analyses whereas the MMI main effect failed to achieve significance in either analysis. Whereas major mental illness was not a risk factor for future antisocial behavior in current and former prison inmates, when paired with a history of violence it predicted increased risk of general and aggressive institutional misconduct. Violence history, on the other hand, was a consistent predictor of recidivism. These results indicate that it may be advisable to review both mental health and violence history when screening inmates as a prelude to managing concomitant MMI and violence propensity.

Examining the Association Between Co-Occurring Disorders and Seriousness of Misconduct by Female Prison Inmates

Although studies have consistently demonstrated mentally ill offenders to be disproportionately involved in misconduct within correctional facilities, research is limited on the potential exacerbating effects of co-occurring disorders (CODs) on inmate behavior. With the vast number of offenders who have comorbid psychiatric and substance use disorders, it is essential that we understand whether the clinically interactive nature of CODs may present increased security and management challenges for correctional administrators. Using data from the Pennsylvania Department of Corrections (PADOC), we compared the institutional misconduct experiences of female inmates with CODs to those for inmates with singular disorders or no disorders. The findings of our study support prior research showing mental illness as a risk factor for prison misconduct. The results further suggest that the presence of both a substance use disorder and a mental illness exacerbates the risk of negative behaviors beyond the singular disorder of mental illness.

Perceived Health and Gambling Behavior of Inmates: A Review of the Literature

An integrative review was conducted to determine perceived health and gambling behavior in incarcerated adults (ages 18-49), measures of perceived health and gambling behavior, and relationships between perceived health and gambling behavior. Adult inmates report poorer perceived health and increased levels of gambling problems than those who are not incarcerated. No research investigating the relationships between perceived health and gambling among adult inmates was found. Knowledge of relationships between perceived health and gambling can assist healthcare providers in understanding potential healthcare needs of the inmates and begin treatment while they are still incarcerated. Nurses in settings such as free and private clinics, homeless shelters, churches, and emergency departments need to screen for problem gambling in this population. This will facilitate appropriate referrals and continued treatment as these inmates transition back into society.

¿POR QUÉ LAS ADOLESCENTES CHILENAS DELINQUEN?

The number of juvenile female offenders is less than male offenders, 1 in 10. This factor has influenced that in Chile few scientific studies explain female youth criminal behavior, and moreover, the gender crime issues are not discussed in public policy. State guidelines indicate that intervention programs, which work with juvenile offenders, should consider a gender approach. This study identifies the factors that influence the manifestation of juvenile criminal behavior in female inmates in juvenile reclusion centers from the north and the center of the country. The MACI Test, semistructured interviews with female and male inmates, and focus groups with inmates’ parents were conducted. The findings were compared with detained male population. There are similarities between genders, however, relevant differences between sexes exist that should be considered in the process of reinsertion, as well as in public policy planning for treatment and prevention measures.

The Multifaceted Construct of Psychopathy: Association with APD, Clinical, and Criminal Characteristics among Male and Female Inmates

Our study examined the multiple facets of psychopathy and their relationship with personality, mental health and criminal behavior in male and female inmates. At an item level, many Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) symptoms were not significantly associated with the Affective facet of the PCL-R, yet all were significantly associated with the other three facets of psychopathy. At a diagnostic level, the associations between APD and PCL-R facets were consistent and pervasive, but varied in strength by psychopathy facet. Despite a great deal of overlap between psychopathy and APD, we found some differences in the direction and magnitude of association between APD, psychopathy facets, and criminal and clinical characteristics. Notably, among a forensic sample, psychopathy facets conferred additional risk for antisocial behavior, violence, and other forms of personality pathology, even after adjusting for levels of APD. Future directions for psychopathy research are discussed.

THE CODE OF THE STREET AND INMATE VIOLENCE: INVESTIGATING THE SALIENCE OF IMPORTED BELIEF SYSTEMS

Scholars have long argued that inmate behaviors stem in part from cultural belief systems that they "import" with them into incarcerative settings. Even so, few empirical assessments have tested this argument directly. Drawing on theoretical accounts of one such set of beliefs-the code of the street-and on importation theory, we hypothesize that individuals who adhere more strongly to the street code will be more likely, once incarcerated, to engage in violent behavior and that this effect will be amplified by such incarceration experiences as disciplinary sanctions and gang involvement, as well as the lack of educational programming, religious programming, and family support. We test these hypotheses using unique data that include measures of the street code belief system and incarceration experiences. The results support the argument that the code of the street belief system affects inmate violence and that the effect is more pronounced among inmates who lack family support, experience disciplinary sanctions, and are gang involved. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Social isolation and inmate behavior: A conceptual framework for theorizing prison visitation and guiding and assessing research

PurposeScholarship suggests that prison visitation is important because it allows inmates access to social ties that, in turn, can offset social isolation and help inmates cope with the transition back into society upon release. Only a small number of empirical assessments of visitation exist, however, and existing studies have typically overlooked how the heterogeneity inherent in visitation may influence whether visitation is beneficial, harmful, or has no effect. The goal of this paper is to develop a conceptual framework for theorizing this heterogeneity and its impacts, evaluating visitation research, and guiding future research aimed at estimating visitation effects. MethodsThe paper reviews theory and research on inmate visitation. In so doing, it systematically examines heterogeneity in visitation and the implications of this heterogeneity. ResultsThe paper identifies five dimensions—visitation timing, longitudinal patterns in visitation, visitor type, visitation experiences, and inmate characteristics—that can be used to characterize visitation events or patterns that, themselves, may have varied effects on in-prison outcomes and reentry outcomes. ConclusionsMore nuanced theories of, and empirical research on, inmate visitation are needed both to understand better the implications of visitation, and inmate social ties more broadly, and to advance theory, research, and policy.

“Half In, Half Out:” Gang Families, Gang Affiliation, and Gang Misconduct

Recently developed inmate behavior frameworks have expanded the discussion from deprivation/importation models to a life-course perspective. DeLisi and associates (International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 55;1186–1207, 2011) presented the life-course importation model of inmate behavior based on a sample of state incarcerated offenders; however, their analyses were unable to distinguish indirect and direct effects of delinquent career and distal family background factors. The current study builds on the life-course importation model of inmate behavior by using path analysis to understand the direct and indirect effects of distal pre-incarceration indictors on gang-related inmate misconduct for 2,520 incarcerated youthful offenders. The findings lend support to the life-course importation model as the familial gang indicator was associated directly with individual gang affiliation, gang affiliation was associated directly with gang-related misconduct, and familial gang associations was associated indirectly with gang-related misconduct.