Beginning Of Nineteenth Century Research Articles

A Descriptive Study on Performance Evaluation of Sewage Treatment System

Abstract: As The rapid expansion of modern housing and industrialization around the cities has polluted environment. This trend was observed in many developed countries in the beginning of nineteenth century which resulted in the contamination of air, water, soil etc. with pollutants. If the pollutants are released in the environment and left untreated they would cause serious diseases in both humans and animals. Large scale pollution of water bodies around the globe became a major problem due to release of industrial and domestic waste directly in water streams. To prevent the leaching of pollutants in the ground water scientist developed various methods of wastewater treatment based on the hazardous chemicals and microorganisms, which were present in the untreated water. Modern sewage treatment plants were installed in big cities to treat the water released from households. Most STPs were designed based on the stringent criteria to check the pollutants levels in the treated water so that when it is released or recycled it is safe to the environment. Modern day STP plants have a high cost of operation due to huge power consumption. In order to reduce the pollutant levels in the wastewater this study was conducted using a Eco Bio Block (EBB) techniques with aeration and without aeration. A comparison of EBB was also carried out with MBBR technique. Our results show that when EBB technique was applied with aeration it is effective in reducing pollutant levels in the wastewater akin to MBBR. In addition, we tested the EBB without aeration and found that the treated waste water has relatively low levels of BOD, COD and turbidity, suggesting that the treated water can be utilized for landscaping and horticulture activities. Overall, the outcomes from this study are encouraging to adopt EBB in smaller towns and in small housing societies to treat the wastewater prior to release. The paper focuses on reviewing the various sewage treatment methods and their results.

In the Sultan’s Salon: Learning, Religion, and Rulership at the Mamluk Court of Qāniṣawh al-Ghawrī (r. 1501–1516) By Christian Mauder

In Shaʿbān 922/September 1516, sultan Qāniṣawh al-Ghawrī (r. 906–22/1501–16) infamously died of a stroke on the battlefield of Marj Ḍābiq, North of Aleppo, where his Syrian and Egyptian armies succumbed to the military force and charisma of the Ottoman sultan Selīm (r. 918–26/1512–20). In subsequent months, Selīm conquered first Syria and then Egypt, he integrated them into the rapidly expanding space of the Ottoman empire, and he ended the longstanding Sultanate of Cairo, also known as the ‘Mamluk’ Sultanate (648–923/1250–1517). Since the nineteenth-century beginnings of the modern historical study of this sultanate, these ignominious endings have coloured understandings of the reign of its penultimate sultan Qāniṣawh al-Ghawrī. Considered politically and militarily incompetent, socio-economically irresponsible, and culturally conservative, the elites of al-Ghawrī’s reign were thought of as incapable of responding to the many challenges of the early tenth/sixteenth century and therefore destined to disappear in the new world of early modernity. In the early 1990s, in his biographical study of both al-Ghawrī’s and his predecessor’s reigns—ominously titled Twilight of Majesty—Carl Petry still concluded that ‘[t]he reigns of these sultans may, in their distinctive ways, be symptomatic of incurable inertia pervading the central Arab lands at the end of the Middle Ages’.1 Around the same time, another doyen of ‘Mamluk studies’, Ulrich Haarmann, summarized how dominant scholarship considered this perception of ‘incurable inertia’ to be related to the general dominance of a traditionalist worldview. ‘Egypt established itself,’ according to Haarmann, ‘[…] as the bulwark of orthodox cultural and religious conservatism’, which meant that ‘[t]he challenges and creative impulses which Mongol and post-Mongol turmoil brought to the artistic, literary and scholarly worlds of Eastern (Iranian, Central Asian, Anatolian) Islam never affected […] the land of Egypt’.2

Review: Under the Banner of Heaven, by Dustin Lance Black

Review: <i>Under the Banner of Heaven</i>, by Dustin Lance Black

Review: Air-Conditioning in Modern American Architecture, 1890–1970

Review: <i>Air-Conditioning in Modern American Architecture, 1890–1970</i>

Performance and Evaluation of Sewage Treatment Plant Based on MBBR and EBB Technologies

Abstract: The rapid expansion of modern housing and industrialization around the cities has polluted environment. This trend was observed in many developed countries in the beginning of nineteenth century which resulted in the contamination of air, water, soil etc. with pollutants. If the pollutants are released in the environment and left untreated they would cause serious diseases in both humans and animals. Large scale pollution of water bodies around the globe became a major problem due to release of industrial and domestic waste directly in water streams. To prevent the leaching of pollutants in the ground water scientist developed various methods of wastewater treatment based on the hazardous chemicals and microorganisms, which were present in the untreated water. Modern sewage treatment plants were installed in big cities to treat the water released from households. Most STPs were designed based on the stringent criteria to check the pollutants levels in the treated water so that when it is released or recycled it is safe to the environment. Modern day STP plants have a high cost of operation due to huge power consumption. In order to reduce the pollutant levels in the wastewater this study was conducted using a Eco Bio Block (EBB) techniques with aeration and without aeration. A comparison of EBB was also carried out with MBBR technique. Our results show that when EBB technique was applied with aeration it is effective in reducing pollutant levels in the wastewater akin to MBBR. In addition, we tested the EBB without aeration and found that the treated waste water has relatively low levels of BOD, COD and turbidity, suggesting that the treated water can be utilized for landscaping and horticulture activities. Overall, the outcomes from this study are encouraging to adopt EBB in smaller towns and in small housing societies to treat the wastewater prior to release

Las diferencias al aprender a escribir en dos escenarios históricos: inicios del siglo XIX y la actualidad

Aprender a escribir es un proceso dinámico y complejo que se desarrolla a lo largo de toda la vida a fin de posibilitar el registro, transformación y comunicación de las ideas, asegurando la participación social. La adquisición de esta potente herramienta cultural tiene un fuerte impacto en la construcción de la identidad, por lo que las desiguales oportunidades en la alfabetización generan relevantes consecuencias en el desarrollo de las personas.&#x0D; Nos proponemos reflexionar acerca de las diferencias en el aprendizaje de la escritura según el sector sociocultural, la identidad y el género. A tal fin, enfocamos indicadores -como quién, para qué, en qué, cuándo y dónde se aprende a escribir-, comunes a dos diferentes escenarios históricos: los inicios del siglo XIX y la actualidad. Para el primer escenario nos valemos de la perspectiva de la historia cultural de los saberes letrados y para el segundo de la perspectiva de las concepciones acerca del aprendizaje de la escritura.&#x0D; En los desarrollos que continúan, ponemos en diálogo esas perspectivas, retomamos planteos y ejemplos de una y otra, a fin de argumentar que solo se han superado ciertas diferencias en el aprendizaje de la escritura, pero hay otras que aún permanecen.

On Freedom and the Will to Adorn: The Art of the African American EssayEmpire of Ruin: Black Classicism and American Imperial CultureReaping Something New: African American Transformations of Victorian Literature

On Freedom and the Will to Adorn: The Art of the African American EssayEmpire of Ruin: Black Classicism and American Imperial CultureReaping Something New: African American Transformations of Victorian Literature

Thy Kingdom Come: A Photographic History of Anglicanism in Hong Kong, Macau, and Mainland China

Thy Kingdom Come presents a tribute to the twentieth anniversary of the Anglican province of Hong Kong, commemorating its history in Greater China in 177 photos, with the general audience in mind. It depicts the emergence of a hybrid, multicultural church, in addition to just an indigenized, Chinese church as commonly envisioned.Its first two parts, “Nineteenth-Century Beginnings (1807–1912)” and “The Chung Hua Sheng Kung Hui (Holy Catholic Church of China) and the Diocese of South China (1912–1951)”, constitute more than half of the collection, reflecting an emphasis on the early history of the church, in its transition from an organic start toward organization and synodical government, and in its active societal presence through to World War II. The subsequent parts of “The Diocese of Hong Kong and Macau (1951–1981)” and “The First Hong Kong Chinese Bishopric (1981–1998)” outline postwar developments of the church as a diocese. Following the political shift in China, the last meeting of the Chinese House of Bishops in 1956 marked the end of an era, while the Hong Kong diocese soon became detached in 1951 and remained so until 1998. The separation of the latter brief section of eleven photos indicates an emphasis on the indigenization of the bishopric. The final part concludes with the establishment of the Province of Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui (1998–2018).At first glance, as the authors stress in the introduction, the book tells a story of indigenization, highlighting milestones of Chinese clergies in Hong Kong being first ordained as deacon (Lo Sam-Yuen), priest (Kwong Yat-Shau), bishop (Mok Shau-Tsang), and diocesan bishop (Peter Kwong Kong-Kit), who eventually established the province and was installed as the first archbishop and primate. This was accompanied by an increasing acknowledgment of women’s contribution: from being anonymous and behind the scene, to renowned socialites, and eventually priests and directors of the Church’s Welfare Council. Meanwhile, the church actively engaged in the community, providing medical, social, and educational services, leading to a disproportionately large contribution to the reconstruction of postwar Hong Kong, a result that is not fully covered in this narrative. Hence, too, regrettably, many names of early students at the Anglican schools, translation helpers, and even clergy may be lost to history. Among the first Chinese substantially exposed to Christianity and the Western world, they had much to offer in a radical era of revolution and unrest.However, closer examination reveals the hybridity of the church, most vividly seen in the highly contextualized architecture first at St John’s University in Shanghai, followed by churches and cathedrals in Beijing and Hong Kong, for example. Likewise, plurality was reflected in the outfits captured in the photos: from the missionaries’ indigenizing efforts to the wide spectrum of cross-cultural attire adopted by Chinese Anglicans and students in the 1900s–1910s, a phenomenon that continued in postwar Hong Kong during rapid westernization. Moreover, while Chinese Anglicans gradually assumed importance, Europeans remained on the scene: notably, it was the English reverend Joyce Bennett who accompanied the guest of honor at a 1978 ceremonial opening. This very book exemplifies this hybridity, being bilingual and coauthored by Philip L. Wickeri, advisor to the archbishop, and Ruiwen Chen, researcher at the Anglican Archives.The 1997 Handover seems to have brought about certain adjustments: there was a stronger presence of government officials from both Hong Kong and China, while the archbishops of Canterbury and Hong Kong entertained politicians and attended political gatherings, scenes unseen in previous photos. In this light, some translation discrepancies become awkward: regarding the colonial status of Hong Kong, “ceded” (被割讓) was translated as “reduced to” (淪為) (13); and upon 1997 the city was described as having “reverted to Chinese sovereignty” (170), which would have been more commonly termed “return” or “handover” before. Regarding the photos of the bishops at the final synod in 1947, the English caption describes them as “Chinese and citizens of the PRC” (102), but the Chinese description conflates the two.While the availability of photos posed objective limitations, this was substantially complemented by the comprehensive bibliography at the end. To conclude, this photographic history is an invaluable collection, and will be of interest to both the general public and scholars of Anglican history in the region.

Stokes, Tyndall, Ruskin and the nineteenth-century beginnings of climate science.

Although we humans have known since the first smokey campfires of prehistory that our activities might alter our local surroundings, the nineteenth century saw the first indications that humankind might alter the global environment; what we currently know as anthropogenic climate change. We are now celebrating the bicentenaries of three figures with a hand in the birth of climate science. George Stokes, John Tyndall and John Ruskin were born in August 1819, August 1820 and February 1819, respectively. We look back from the perspective of two centuries following their births. We outline their contributions to climate science: understanding the equations of fluid motion and the recognition of the need to collect global weather data together with comprehending the role in regulating terrestrial temperature played by gases in the atmosphere. This knowledge was accompanied by fears of the Earth's regression to another ice age, together with others that industrialization was ruining humankind's health, morals and creativity. The former fears of global cooling were justified but seem strange now that the balance has tipped so far the other way towards global warming; the latter, on the other hand, today seem very prescient. This article is part of the theme issue 'Stokes at 200 (Part 1)'.

In the footsteps of Motiejus Požerskis (Požėra): a magistrate officer biography (1769–1813)

Modern theories of social change and social – political structuration have usually looked to the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries as the starting point for the formation of the modern society without taking into account roles of individual with lower social status. This article addresses central problem of the linkage between human action and social structure (townsmen estate, burghers’ elites and state and urban institutions). The historical research is based on Kaunas city case in the end eighteenth and beginning of nineteenth centuries. The article first addresses the political context of transformations and their main features. Secondly, it studies the social and political action of city elected officer and lawyer. (pol. pisarz miasta,magistrata, rus. майстратовый писарь) Motiejus Požerskis (Požėra; pol. Pożerski) in social and political fields.

The Impact of Sovereign Debt on Growth: An Empirical Study on GIIPS versus JUUSD Countries

1. Introduction Development of several industrial countries during the last centuries links to rise of deficit levels in public budget, which led into a significant rise in public debt, and the following deterioration in financial situations in those countries (Mencinger et al., 2014). Before the Nineteenth century, debt accumulation in industrial countries was relatively slow mainly due to wars. French-British war between 1689-1697 led to rise of British public debt, public debt percentage raised in U.S.A as a result of American revolution, French debt also increased after 1878 as a result of the rise of public disbursement and colonial expansion (Checherita-Westphal and Rother, 2012). In the beginning of nineteenth century a big rise in public debt happened and led into a significant rise in sovereign debt crisis in the world as a consequence of several reasons such as: interest rate decrease, liquidity decrease in markets due to investor's tendency to less liquidity assets which doesn't include risks. Between 1800-2008 Spain suffered thirteen sovereign debt crisis, France suffered eight crises, Austria and Hungary suffered seven crises, Portugal suffered six crises, and Greece suffered five crises (Mireinhart and Rogoff, 2009). Economic and financial crisis contributed to public debt accumulation, when financial crisis which started in less-quality financial institution market in U.S.A led into worst economic recession since 1930 in all advanced economies. Public debt in Euro zone rose up between 2007-2009 by 20%, deficit raised by 814% for the same period (from 0.07% in 2007 to -6.4 % in 2009) while economic growth for the same period regressed by 250% from (3% in 2007 to -4.5 % in 2009). As a result of financial deficit rise, revenue decrease, launching financial stimulation packages, and strong commitment by governments to help stumbling banks in fear of inability to pay off their debt, classifications of financial solvency got worse in several Euro zone countries. That led into a quick transfer from Subprime Mortgages Crisis into sovereign debt crisis started in autumn 2009 in Greece. Soon it spread into other countries such as, Ireland, Portugal, Spain, cypress, Italy. Then, European economy entered the worst state of recession since the beginning of the twentieth century. A study conducted by Haytham Ewaida (2015) showed that economic growth in Euro zone decelerate severely between (2010-2013) when gross domestic product declined by 18% , price index decreased by 19%, and public debt increased by 11% for the same period. Policies on the level of EU were carried out to address the crisis through financial rescue plans for stumbling countries, with conditioned financing for those countries through financial austerity policies, structural reforms in order to improve competitive ability. Positive influence of these measures usually links in the long run to decrease government disbursement in order to get rid of debt burden and increase growth horizons. However, these policies will have negative impact on production, ability to adapt economically in the future, which could lead into a long period of economic recession (Dreger and Reimers, 2013). Debt crisis led to revival of academic and political concern with economic growth impact on public debt. The controversial relationship which links public debt levels and economic growth started to come back. The important question is: Does rise of public debt restrict economic growth? This question is important for policy that will be adopted, because if the answer is yes that means (expansionary fiscal policy which increases debt levels will lead into decreasing levels of economic growth on long run). Yes -answer to this question means negation of positive impact of fiscal stimulation on euro zone economies. This forces policy makers to review their policies (dominant belief became that public debt leads into decreasing economic growth on long run). …

Analysis of Volume, Structure and Dynamics of Russian Foreign Trade Under Conditions of Globalization

1. Introduction Development of several industrial countries during the last centuries links to rise of deficit levels in public budget, which led into a significant rise in public debt, and the following deterioration in financial situations in those countries (Mencinger et al., 2014). Before the Nineteenth century, debt accumulation in industrial countries was relatively slow mainly due to wars. French-British war between 1689-1697 led to rise of British public debt, public debt percentage raised in U.S.A as a result of American revolution, French debt also increased after 1878 as a result of the rise of public disbursement and colonial expansion (Checherita-Westphal and Rother, 2012). In the beginning of nineteenth century a big rise in public debt happened and led into a significant rise in sovereign debt crisis in the world as a consequence of several reasons such as: interest rate decrease, liquidity decrease in markets due to investor's tendency to less liquidity assets which doesn't include risks. Between 1800-2008 Spain suffered thirteen sovereign debt crisis, France suffered eight crises, Austria and Hungary suffered seven crises, Portugal suffered six crises, and Greece suffered five crises (Mireinhart and Rogoff, 2009). Economic and financial crisis contributed to public debt accumulation, when financial crisis which started in less-quality financial institution market in U.S.A led into worst economic recession since 1930 in all advanced economies. Public debt in Euro zone rose up between 2007-2009 by 20%, deficit raised by 814% for the same period (from 0.07% in 2007 to -6.4 % in 2009) while economic growth for the same period regressed by 250% from (3% in 2007 to -4.5 % in 2009). As a result of financial deficit rise, revenue decrease, launching financial stimulation packages, and strong commitment by governments to help stumbling banks in fear of inability to pay off their debt, classifications of financial solvency got worse in several Euro zone countries. That led into a quick transfer from Subprime Mortgages Crisis into sovereign debt crisis started in autumn 2009 in Greece. Soon it spread into other countries such as, Ireland, Portugal, Spain, cypress, Italy. Then, European economy entered the worst state of recession since the beginning of the twentieth century. A study conducted by Haytham Ewaida (2015) showed that economic growth in Euro zone decelerate severely between (2010-2013) when gross domestic product declined by 18% , price index decreased by 19%, and public debt increased by 11% for the same period. Policies on the level of EU were carried out to address the crisis through financial rescue plans for stumbling countries, with conditioned financing for those countries through financial austerity policies, structural reforms in order to improve competitive ability. Positive influence of these measures usually links in the long run to decrease government disbursement in order to get rid of debt burden and increase growth horizons. However, these policies will have negative impact on production, ability to adapt economically in the future, which could lead into a long period of economic recession (Dreger and Reimers, 2013). Debt crisis led to revival of academic and political concern with economic growth impact on public debt. The controversial relationship which links public debt levels and economic growth started to come back. The important question is: Does rise of public debt restrict economic growth? This question is important for policy that will be adopted, because if the answer is yes that means (expansionary fiscal policy which increases debt levels will lead into decreasing levels of economic growth on long run). Yes -answer to this question means negation of positive impact of fiscal stimulation on euro zone economies. This forces policy makers to review their policies (dominant belief became that public debt leads into decreasing economic growth on long run). …

A Comparative study of Gandhi and Nehru and in their Autobiographies

Autobiography is usually defined as a retrospective narrative written about one’s life, in the first person and in prose. Such writing has appeared with increasing frequency in Western Literature since the beginning of nineteenth century but after World War II, it gained considerable significance. Now autobiographies all over the world and especially in India are extensively read and enjoyed, but paradoxically enough, they have received very scant critical attention, let alone comparative treatment. The comparative approach to literature enables us to widen our critical horizon and develop the concept of prevalent literary tendencies in the world as well as the different regions of a nation. The comparative study of authors belonging to the different nations should be preceded by that of authors belonging to the same country, preferably coming from two different parts of the country belonging to two different fields and professions. It is needless to say, that the comparative study aims at establishing the universality and oneness of human experience through the depiction of diverse peculiarities of it

Limited Analogies: Reading Relations in Wordsworth’s The Borderers

All our reasonings concerning matter of fact are founded on a species of analogy. --David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding The other knows me merely by analogy--and that just is not knowing another mind! But I've already seen that nothing could be better than, could go beyond, analogy here! --Stanley Cavell, The Claim of Reason IN PREFACE TO LYRICAL BALLADS, WORDSWORTH CONSIDERS THE pleasure received from metrical language and ends up offering what is perhaps his most comprehensive but least original statement on aesthetic theory: I mean pleasure which mind derives from perception of in dissimilitude. This principle is great spring of activity of our minds, and their chief feeder. From this principle direction of sexual appetite, and all passions connected with it, take their origin: it is life of our ordinary conversation; and upon accuracy with which in dissimilitude, and dissimilitude in are perceived, depend our and our feelings. (1) A commonplace of eighteenth-century aesthetics, as editors Jane Worthington Smyser and W. J. B. Owen note, Wordsworth's principle of similitude in dissimilitude, and dissimilitude in similitude, reflects a basic concern with workings of analogical thought. (2) If analogy was understood broadly in eighteenth century as a resemblance between things with regard to some circumstances, (3) Wordsworth is interested here in how analogical resemblances are determined in first place, and in how they determine many facets of life: aesthetic experience, of course, but also mental activity, passions, morality, judgment, and intercourse in all senses. Approaching this passage with concerns of queer theory and poststructuralist ethics in mind, recent readers have argued that Wordsworth privileges certain notions of sameness and difference: first half of his chiastic formulation (similitude in dissimilitude) has been criticized as a heteronormative principle that puts forth sexual difference as a necessary condition for attraction, while latter half (dissimilitude in similitude) has been valorized for emphasizing importance of difference in context of ethical relations. (4) And yet crux of Wordsworth's formulation does not so much involve sameness and/or difference as the accuracy with which in dissimilitude, and dissimilitude in are perceived. least when it comes to taste and moral feelings, everything, for Wordsworth, would seem to not upon whether one privileges sameness or difference, but upon one's ability to discern difference between a and a dissimilitude. Everything would seem to depend, in other words, upon possibility of even knowing difference between difference and sameness. Of course, by most accounts, epistemological limits of analogy are supposed to be old news at beginning of nineteenth century. At beginning of seventeenth writes Michel Foucault, thought ceases to move in element of resemblance. Similitude is no longer form of knowledge but rather occasion for error. (5) Students of Romanticism will likely understand break Foucault identifies in terms of a more gradual shift, whereby a system of analogical correspondences that structured Renaissance ontology breaks down across Enlightenment as analogy comes to be seen as a merely rhetorical device, rather than an organizing principle that unifies physical, moral, and spiritual realms. According to both Earl Wasserman and M. H. Abrams, for example, the last significant vestige of myth of an analogically ordered is found in eighteenth century, albeit in a greatly weakened form, after literal belief in a universe of divine types and correspondences, which had originally supported this structural trope, faded. …

The Writings: Job—Sirach

The Writings:Job—Sirach Thomas Hieke, Lesley R. DiFrancisco, Christopher T. Begg, John W. Wright, David A. Leiter, George C. Heider, John Thomas Willis, and OSST J. Edward Owens 425. [Wisdom Literature; Genesis 2–3] John Day, "Wisdom and the Garden of Eden," Perspectives on Israelite Wisdom, 336-52 [see #613]. Five possible connections between the wisdom tradition and the Garden of Eden story are examined by D.: the presence and meaning of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, the diverse relations of the primordial man to wisdom in Genesis 2–3 and Ezekiel 28; the shrewdness of the serpent, the comparison of the tree of life in Genesis and Proverbs, and whether or not the Garden of Eden story is a more general engagement with the wisdom tradition's view of the quest for wisdom. Ultimately, the perspective of the Garden of Eden story is ambiguous in that while it is indebted to the wisdom tradition, it is wary of wisdom pursued autonomously.—B.C.G. [End Page 112] 426. [Wisdom Literature; NT] Wilfried Eisele, "'Lieber einen Stein unüberlegt schleudern als ein Wort.' Sprichwörter und Jesusworte im frühen Christentum," BK 71 (2016) 169-72. Sayings and proverbs had an important influence on early Christianity. OT wisdom literature is quoted and alluded to in the NT. E. discusses briefly the eight direct quotations from the Book of Proverbs in the NT. Then he turns to the Gospel of Thomas as an example of a prolific usage of proverbs and sayings in the Jesus tradition.—T.H. 427. [Wisdom Literature] John Barton, "Ethics in the Wisdom Literature of the Old Testament," Perspectives on Israelite Wisdom, 24-37 [see #613]. Several important issues related to the ethics of wisdom literature are discussed by B. First, while wisdom ethics reflects the values of a certain social class in ancient Israel, the standards this ethics reflects were not necessarily restricted to this class. Second, wisdom ethics were always religious in some sense, even before sages began to integrate wisdom with law and covenantal concepts. Third, wisdom literature does reflect a belief in a natural moral order. Fourth, there are important similarities between wisdom ethics and the virtue ethics of ancient Greece.—B.C.G. 428. [Wisdom Literature] Mark J. Boda and Shannon E. Baines, "Wisdom's Cry: Embracing the Vision of Justice in Old Testament Wisdom Literature," The Bible and Social Justice, 35-63 [see #622]. B. and B. explore issues of and views on social justice in Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Job in relation to recent scholarship. Proverbs conveys "practical wisdom" on life, success, and avoiding poverty, while also demonstrating a concern for justice. Ecclesiastes and Job portray "philosophical wisdom." Qoheleth offers reflection on wealth and poverty—seeking after wealth is futile—and the existence of injustice, oppression, and human suffering in the world. Job challenges assumptions about correlations between one's stance with God and one's experiences, but questions arise about "Yahweh's role in social injustice." The wisdom voices offer "theological and ethical resources" that have the potential to influence the contemporary response to injustice.—L.R.D. 429. [Wisdom Literature] Maria Häusl, "Über das Sprechen. Sprüche aus der älteren Weisheit über gelingende Kommunikation," BK 71 (2016) 159-63. H. focuses on texts from older biblical wisdom literature about language and communication. Given that language and speaking involve a basic human function, the older proverbs develop several criteria for a successful communication: reliable speech, pleasant words, modesty and silence, especially regarding negative emotions; avoidance of idle talk; sobriety and composure; admonition, advice, and the willingness to take advice and receive instruction; and esteem and respect.—T.H. 430. [Wisdom Literature] Will Kynes, "The Nineteenth-Century Beginnings of 'Wisdom Literature,' and Its Twenty-First-Century End?" Perspectives on Israelite Wisdom, 83-108 [see #613]. The grouping of Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes (and sometimes Sirach, Wisdom of Solomon, Psalms, and Song of Songs) as a separate corpus of "Wisdom Literature" within the OT began only in the nineteenth century and was driven by modern philosophical concerns. [End Page 113] While in the...

La reorganización de la comunidad de ciudad y tierra de Segovia durante la Edad Moderna. Las ventas de lugares en el siglo XVII

This research tries to study and analyze the jurisdictional exemptions, known as sales of subjects, occurred throughout seventeenth centuries in Segovia, understanding by jurisdiction the power awarded by the monarchs, until the beginning of nineteenth century, to rule a certain territorial district. But that not meant that the received jurisdiction was, on the contrary of lay’s jurisdiction, to get land’s property, but some income receipts and above all, the power to put on trial. After an introduction and the current status of the issue, follow the main phases of exemption’s dynamic, carrying on with disputes and complaints happened, and concluding with a part about what the process implied in the development of Segovia’s institutional running.

The Landing of CMS Missionaries to an Ottoman Dominion: Missionary Education in Egypt (1825-1862)

No part of missionary effort appears to commend itself more universallyto approbation than the education of youth,And in no part of the world may more auspicious consequences be anticipated,from its due exercise, than in the Levant(From Mr. Hartley's letter, Miss. Reg., April, 1832, p. 175).All missionary societies share the common purpose of spreading Christianity or improving its existing standards. Opposition is expected when the objective is conversion; therefore schools and medical services precede the church. Hence the foremost aim of missionary education is to enable conversion. This is only possible if the Scriptures can be understood and preferably read. The central aim of all Protestant missionary education is Bible study. Local circumstances determine whether the pursuit of this policy is immediately possible, and if it is, how it is possible (Latourette, 1946, pp. 21-23). During the period under investigation (1825-1862), Egypt was a dominion of the Ottoman Empire, and attracted the attention and interest of all European states that had been displaying their military and commercial superiority for a long time. In the nineteenth century, Egypt was not only destitute of schools, but had also entered a rapid modernization process since the reign of Mehmet Ali Pasha. For example, the proceedings for sending Muslim students to Europe in order to be instructed in science, trade or arts, or for establishing modern schools with contemporary curricula and materials were incited by the then Pasha of Egypt, Mehmet Ali (1805-1848). He and his son, Ibrahim Pasha (r. 1848), both seemed to be inclined to extend religious liberty to their subjects, as well (Altundag, 1988; Heyworth-Dunne, 1939). Therefore, an extremely favourable environment was created for missionary activities in Egypt from the beginning of nineteenth century. From its findings, this research will attempt to put forth that the missionary schools opened by the Church Society (CMS) in fact reflected the encouragement of Egyptian rulers to those who wished to introduce European institutions. Moreover, during the course of the period under investigation, they tried to ameliorate the ignorance around them and inspire the desire for a better education and a fuller life in people.The main hypothesis of this research is the necessity that the permanent effects of the missionary activities, the results of which are still felt today, should be understood on the basis of a comprehensive analysis of the process by which capitalism transformed into imperialism. For example, it should not be neglected that the activities of the Protestant societies were not only important for improving the political, economic and commercial interests of England in the region, but also for creating an awareness in Egypt that the most important issues for protecting national existence were raising the level of education and providing cultural development. Within this framework, no studies have so far focused on the educational activities of the English missionary societies in Egypt based on the original resources till date, which has resulted in a substantial lacuna (Aksu, 2008a; Arig, 1999; Aydin, 1996; Aykit, 2008; Buzpinar, 2003; Dalyan, 2012; Danacioglu, 1993; Davison, 1987; Deringil, 2002; Dincer, n.d.; Erdogan, 2008; Fortna, 2005; Gunduz, 2004; Gunduz & Aydin, 2002; Haboubi, 2010; Halidi & Ferruh, 1968; Haydaroglu, 1993; Keskinkilic, 2008; Kirsehirlioglu, 1963; Kocabasoglu, 1989; Mutlu, 2005; Oymak, 2012; Ozdalga, 2005; Polvan, 1952; Sevinc, 2007; Somel, 2010; Tozlu, 1991; Turan, 2011; Tumer & Kucuk, 1993; Vahapoglu, 1997). Although Jack Sislian's article titled Missionary Work in Egypt during the Nineteenth Century (1967, pp. 175-240) fills an important gap in this field; however, the fact that the author did not include the letters and reports written by the missionaries (which constitute the most important resource for the field) in his study resulted in many faults. …

Sustainable Tourism - Sensible Tourism

Abstract The article presents the issues related to travel and tourism, the development of this branch of service, and attempts to create alternative solutions to reduce this phenomenon’s dysfunctions. The introduction outlines the nineteenth century beginnings of tourism on the British Isles, including the setup of the first travel agency and the effects of increasing number of participants of mass tourism. The second section discusses the evolution from traveller to the tourist consumer of the commercial offer and social and environmental impacts of these changes. The third part presents the attempts to create alternatives to mass tourism with the adaptation of the rules resulting from the concept of sustainable development, and stressed the need for pro-environmental education.

Experiência docente e transmissão familiar do magistério no Brasil

Este artigo apresenta interpretações sobre experiências docentes no Brasil na primeira metade do século XIX. Trabalhamos com a hipótese de que a aprendizagem do ofício no âmbito familiar foi uma importante via de reprodução da docência e de que houve investimento das famílias em transmitir, aos seus membros, esta herança imaterial e favorecer a inserção ao corpo docente, sobretudo público. Nossa interpretação é tecida a partir de procedimentos metodológicos da micro-história e dos alertas analíticos do campo da cultura material escolar. O cerne das fontes é constituído por ofícios e mapas de frequência, remetidos pelos professores à inspetoria da instrução pública, pela legislação educacional do período e por livros de memórias de localidades. As experiências docentes das famílias estudadas permitem analisar diferentes dimensões da inserção dos sujeitos no magistério e a percepção de que o magistério tem, na família, uma ambiência favorável, e, mais do que isso, autorizada e legítima de reprodução do ofício, reverberando na legislação educacional do período.

Cultural Resource Management for a Majapahit Kingdom Site in Trowulan, East Java, Indonesia

The Kingdom of Majapahit located in East Java, Indonesia, was established in 1293 ce and lasted until its destruction in the sixteenth century. At its peak, the Kingdom covered the modern-day region of Indonesia and the Malay Peninsula. Archaeological remains from the Majapahit era have been discovered in several places, including Java, Bali, and Sumatra, but the most important site is located in the small town of Trowulan in East Java. Trowulan has been researched since the beginning of nineteenth century, with most of the work concerned with the study and preservation of the archaeological remains; little research has taken place regarding the archaeological remains in the relation to the local community. Archaeologists and the government agree that the inhabitants of Trowulan have violated regulations related to the protection of the monuments and that their activities have damaged the site. Until now neither the neither archaeologists nor the government have conducted any research into the reasons behind the local community’s actions. Understanding the local communities’ perspectives and aspiration is essential in order to develop relevant recommendations regarding the protection and management Trowulan’s cultural heritage. This research has been undertaken using qualitative methods, including observations, in-depth interviews, and Focus Group discussions.