Beginning Of Century Research Articles

Italian Foreign Policy between Albania and the Balkans (1910-1939)

This paper analyses the dynamics of Italian diplomacy in Albania from the beginning of the 20th century until 1939, when the Fascists occupied Albania. The primary purpose of this paper is to show how the interests of Italy, combined with the political and economic conditions of the country and, more broadly, of the Balkan peninsula, have changed constantly. Considering the Italian and Albanian diplomatic documents and broader literature, this paper will show the dynamics that shaped the development of Italy's foreign policy concerning Albania and the Balkans in the first three decades of the century. Therefore, in the beginning, it will explain why Albania was relevant to Italian interests. In the context of the Balkan wars, Italy shared its interest with the Austria-Hungarian Empire because it aimed also to control the Adriatic Sea. Afterwards, Yugoslavia was one of Italy's rivals on the Peninsula. Being aware that Albania, like other countries in the Mediterranean, enjoys high interest from the great powers, Italy often tried to receive the UK's and France's approval on some of its moves. Hence, international events like the Balkan wars and WWI and Italian and Albanian political leaders did have a relevant role in shaping foreign policy toward the Balkans and Albania.
 
 Received: 19 February 2024 / Accepted: 15 March 2024 / Published: 23 March 2024

Retrospection and Reference: The Early Spread of Marxism in Chinese Universities in the Early 20th Century

At the beginning of the 20th century, universities were an important battlefield for the dissemination of early Marxism, and teachers, as members of intellectuals, played an important role in the early dissemination of Marxism in China. This article, from the perspective of the teacher community, traces and analyzes the background, group characteristics, channels, content, and effects of the early dissemination of Marxism by the teacher community. Taking history as a lesson, it explores the benefits of expanding dissemination channels and methods in combination with the characteristics of the times, strengthening the construction of ideological and political theory courses in universities, and promoting the popularization of Marxism.

The “Schwarze Mander” of the Court Church in Innsbruck, Austria: Manufacture and Production of Monumental Brass Statues in the Renaissance

AbstractThe 28 "Schwarze Mander" (Black Men) are undoubtedly amongst the most magnificent monumental brass statues of the Renaissance. Commissioned by the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I for his funeral monument at the beginning of the 16th century, they were completed more than 30 years after the Emperor's death and are now part of his cenotaph in the Hofkirche in Innsbruck. Revising the original manuscripts and letters exchanged between Maximilian I and the various artists sheds light on the manufacturing process and the challenges the artists encountered whilst producing the statues. Moreover, the alloys used in the manufacture of the statues, now all blackened due to patination processes, were identified through non-invasive chemical analysis of all the statues.

Анализ барьеров развития электроэнергетики России: история вопроса, современное состояние и перспективы

The author's view of the history of the Russian electric power industry is presented, based on facts confirmed in official sources, an analysis of the problems of the development of the electric power industry in the period from the beginning of the XX century to the present. Based on the latest data, an analysis of the dynamics of the Russian electric power industry from 2018 to the present has been carried out, and the main trends in the market under consideration have been identified. The prospects for the development of the industry are considered, taking into account the Federal legislation of the Russian Federation and state plans. Special attention is paid to the impact of the tense geopolitical situation on the Russian electricity market in 2022-2023. The main problems faced by market participants, as well as the actions of the government and companies in response to the changes, are analyzed. Various methods of electricity production are considered and a comparative analysis of different types of power plants is carried out, which includes a description of their positive and negative sides. It is noted that despite the high rates of development from the moment of formation to the present, barriers and challenges have always arisen, which resulted in reforms to change and modernize the approaches of the state to the development of the Russian electric power industry. Today, the electric power industry of the Russian Federation demonstrates stability, however, the potential of its development tools has not been exhausted and requires constant monitoring and updating. Options for measures to improve the efficiency of the industry are proposed. It is concluded that the various proposed measures will help set a new positive vector for the development of the electric power industry in Russia.

Pre-Turkic Burial in the Northern Altai: Cultural and Chronological Interpretation

Purpose. One of the problems in the archeology of Altai of the Great Migration period remains the chronology of funerary sites. The article concerns the materials of one of representative burials of the Choburak-I necropolis in the Northern Altai, demonstrating the wide possibilities of research in this direction.Methods and Results. A man of 25–30 years old was buried in the grave of barrow № 38. The key features of the object are a small mound with a crepe, the western orientation of the deceased person, as well as the burial of a horse «at the feet» of the man. The accompanying inventory included numerous weapons, tools, equipment for a man and a horse. The analysis of the finds testifies to the period of the construction of mound № 38 not earlier than the middle of the 4th century AD. The results of radiocarbon dating were obtained, which supplement this information and indicate the upper chronological boundary no later than the beginning of the 5th century AD.Conclusion. The correlation of the available data makes it possible to determine the chronology of mound no. 38 with-in the middle – second half of the 4th century AD. The recorded characteristics of the funeral rite indicate that this object belongs to the Dialyan tradition of ritual practice of the Bulan-Koby culture. The set of items found with the de-ceased man testifies to his high status in the nomadic society during his lifetime.

Shell asymmetry in Cretaceous Cyclothyrididae (Brachiopoda): variability, ontogeny and terminology

The asymmetry observed in rhynchonellid brachiopod shells has been discussed for decades and continues to attract attention. This noteworthy modification of the anterior margin morphology during the ontogeny has evolved several times in rhynchonellids, and seems to reflect a genetic basis. First, we try to clarify the terminology regarding asymmetrical, dissymmetrical and symmetrical shells that has existed since the beginning of the 20th century. The Cretaceous populations observed clearly exhibit antisymmetry (also called random asymmetry). During the Cretaceous, some populations of Cyclothyris McKoy, 1844 include a mixture of truly asymmetrical specimens and others that exhibit an intermediate degree of asymmetry, herein called atypical morphologies. Shapes of specimens coming from two different locations in France were captured using geometric morphometrics. We used the range of different morphologies: 1) to test alternative hypotheses about the ontogeny of asymmetry; 2) to test for the possibility of several morphogroups; and 3) to discuss the determinism of the asymmetry.

Эстетика и культура: культурологическая интерпретация эстетических трансформаций в ХХ веке

<p>The article is devoted to the shifts that unfolded from the turn of the XIX–XX centuries to the turn of the XX–XXI centuries in the humanities. The American researcher D. Bachmann-Medic recently made an expert in determining the most significant processes in this sense in her book "Cultural Turns". In accordance with her concept, at that stage in history when there was a cultural turn, linguistics took a decisive position in the humanities, in particular, in the sciences of art. It can be argued that for decades much in the humanities has been determined precisely by the linguistic turn. In general, that's what happened. This is evidenced by the appearance of formalism in its Russian and German forms at the beginning of the twentieth century, and then structuralism and poststructuralism. The semiotic turn, which aims to study existing sign systems, including art, illustrates the provisions of the book by D. Bachmann-Medic. The problem arose only with aesthetics, which, as linguistics increasingly asserted itself as a leading science, demonstrated a crisis and a decline in its high status. In general, we can agree with this characteristic of the development of the humanities. But the author of the article insists on the need for a culturological reading of scientific processes. Drawing attention to the fact that both signs and methods imitating signs take part in the communication processes (and such methods are, among others, symbols), the author of the article, referring to Hegel's idea that history is the history of the Spirit, shows that forms that arose take part in the communication processes in different periods of the history of the Spirit, including the most archaic forms, to which Hegel referred symbolic, and, in general, mythological forms. The ways of communication, determined not by signs themselves, but by ways imitating signs, and these are symbols, are at the heart of not only sign systems, but also types of culture. Asserting this, the author relies on the idea of representing the poststructuralism of Yu. Kristeva, who distinguishes iconic and unfamiliar types of cultures in history. Based on this idea, the author shows that at the turn of the XX–XXI centuries, humanity is entering an era of radical cultural renewal, which has consequences for the humanities. This epoch is characterized by an exit from a culture functioning on the basis of a sign and an appeal to symbolic forms of thinking, which corresponds to P. Sorokin's concept of sociodynamics of culture, in which types of cultures are distinguished. At the turn of the XX–XXI centuries, a culture based on sensory reality and guided by the cognition of this reality by positivist methods is experiencing a decline, which explains the decline in the status of classical aesthetics. In this context, it becomes clear the final stage in the functioning of the humanities, at which a linguistic turn was possible. This is explained by the next extinction of positivism. Such its extinction will occur in an alternative culture, which activates forms of symbolic thinking. In this atmosphere there will be a revival of aesthetics as a science, in which the forms preceding the emergence of classical aesthetics will be actualized.</p>

Гуманитарная экспертиза информационных технологий в контексте гуманитарного знания и познания

The use of information technology has long remained the prerogative of the natural sciences. They began to be used in the humanities at the beginning of the 20th century, giving rise to a number of non-trivial problems. One of them is related to the question of how justified is the use of new information technologies in humanities knowledge, where work is traditionally based around reading and comprehending texts. The need to under-stand the risks of introducing digital technologies into the humanities determines the relevance of the proposed study, the aim of which is to substantiate the role of humanitarian expertise as an independent assessment of the feasibility of applying technical innovations in humanities knowledge and cognition. It is shown that the hu-manitarian expertise of information technologies in humanities knowledge and cognition is a new and unex-plored area of modern science. At the same time, understanding this phenomenon makes it possible to identify the risks and possible negative consequences of using technical innovations in humanitarian education and science.

Travel essay “In the Far North” by Teki Odulok - the first travelogue of the early twentieth century

Teki Odulok's travel essay is the first work devoted to a journey through the northernmost regions of the Russian Federation undertaken by a compatriot, a representative of the smallest Russian people - the Yukaghir, in the 20s of the twentieth century. The article presents the results of the study of the content of the travelogue, its chronotopes, descriptions of nature at different geographical latitudes, culture and life of the unique endemic peoples inhabiting the territory: the Yukaghirs (Oduls), Russian-Ustintsy, Chukchi, Evens, Evenks (Lamuts). It is proven that the work is a narrative, objectively related to the history and geographical location of the region, political and cultural events in the Soviet Union at the beginning of the twentieth century. The novelty is justified by the fact that the essay has the characteristics of a travelogue in the modern sense, and therefore the readers, regardless of their nationality and place of residence, perceive it with interest. The influence of the professional view of a scientist-economist on the style of literary narration is shown, which provides an enriched description of travel along a specific route and an evidential connection with the modern economic state of the regions described. Complete discourses combining documentary narration, presentation of real facts about harsh conditions of survival and description of life and customs of representatives of small number of peoples - endemics - are highlighted. Methods of comparison and literary retroscopy were used, which allowed to confirm the author's assumptions about the development of the region in literary and documentary form. The article may be of interest not only to philologists and specialists in the field of national cultures, but also to interested readers.

ESR/U-series and pIR-IR290 dating of the Middle Pleistocene site of Lunel-Viel (LV I), Hérault, Southern France

The Mas des Caves site at Lunel-Viel, Southern France, is a complex of several caves, developed in Miocene limestone, that have yielded a rich archaeo-palaeontological sequence attributed to the Middle Pleistocene with abundant vertebrates and lithic artefacts. The first caves (LVI, II and III), discovered in 1800, were excavated at the beginning of the 19th century (Serres et al., 1828) before falling into oblivion for over a century. The main cavity is LVI, when LVII and III are smaller subparallel galleries not connected to LVI. In the early 1970s, research was conducted in the main gallery by E. Bonifay who discovered an extension named LVIV and the natural entrance (sinkhole, doline) both completely closed now.Recently, a multidisciplinary approach has been set up (DRAC-SRA Occitanie) to contextualize the ancient collections with the recent ones and to allow a better understanding of the site formation, palaeoenvironmental and behavioral history of the animals and humans who lived there (Brugal et al., 2021). The previous chronology based on faunal evidence yields important biomarkers (including new genus and species/subspecies) making Lunel-Viel a major Middle Pleistocene site in the European record. Among various dating techniques used in this study, trapped-charged methods such as combined ESR/U-series and pIR-IR290 were applied on fossil tooth enamel and on K-feldspars, respectively. The results obtained by both methods are in agreement and suggest a period of human occupation between 300 and 200 ka. This age range matches well with the composition of the faunal assemblage attributed to the second part of the Middle Pleistocene (biochronology) and which constrains the occupation to a cool/temperate and humid period which could be contemporaneous with the MIS7 (Lisiecki and Raymo, 2005) cited in figure 5 legend.

Description of the moods in the ecclesiastical environment of the Georgian Orthodox Church at the beginning of the XX century

Description of the moods in the ecclesiastical environment of the Georgian Orthodox Church at the beginning of the XX century

Protection of children’s rights in the USA at the end of the 19th – on the beginning of the 20th century: historical excursion

The article analyzes the problems of protecting the rights of children in the USA, which developed at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries. It was established that by the end of the 19th century. the question of protecting children has never been raised anywhere in the world. The considered case of Mary Ellen McCormack, who suffered brutal abuse from her adoptive parents, and with the help of Elbridge Jerry's lawyer, was transferred to the US Supreme Court. It was established that this precedent became the first documented case of child abuse in the history of the United States of America, and in the world as a whole.
 Tracing the history of the formation of the New York Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children "NYSPCC", which became the first organization in the world to protect the interests of children. His activities, which consisted in the legal protection of children, their material support and violation of their rights and interests, were considered. Particularly shocking were the persistent abuses in private kindergartens and homes where children were kept in unlivable conditions, while the guardians received the costs of child support from the state.
 It was emphasized that the establishment of the New York Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children "NYSPCC" was the key to changes in this area. His activities prompted the rapid formation of other societies in the United States and the adoption of the first normative legal acts that guaranteed the rights of children and provided a mechanism for their protection. Gradually, there was a transformation of public consciousness, which took over responsibility for the protection of minor children.
 Examines the creation of state departments of welfare, social services, health, and labor, which opened in all states, as well as the Federal Children's Bureau, which was established in 1912. It became the first national government office in the world, whose powers focused on ensuring better well­being of children and their mothers.
 The field of activity of the Bureau was studied, which developed a whole set of measures, which consisted in the introduction of prenatal care for women, helped them in the birth of a child, the establishment of specialized children's clinics, the introduction of the institute of patronage nurses, certified milk stations for the children's year, and raising awareness among women mothers about the measures . and the need for proper child care to address high infant mortality.
 Another area of activity of the Children's Bureau was the control over the use of child labor, as well as educational activities - the publication of books that highlighted contemporary problems in the field of violation of children's rights. The work of the bureau also affected legislative initiatives. Thus, the Keating-Owen Act of 1916, which prohibited the labor of minors, as well as the Sheppard- Towner Act of 1921, which allocated federal subsidies to state programs for the protection of motherhood and childhood, were analyzed. The following were subject to state funding: training of midwives, educational work with parents, opening of health centers, parenting courses, introduction of standards and the procedure for licensing maternity homes, collection of data on maternal and child mortality.
 The prescriptions of the Law on Social Security of 1935, which provided for the financing of a program to help dependent children, low-income families, and the creation of a child care service, which was authorized to supervise the maintenance of children's rights, were studied.

Leo Tolstoy’s Anti-Colonial Views and Their Influence on Liberation Movements in Africa

Leo Tolstoy is one of the few Russian thinkers of the pre-Soviet era whose views influenced leaders of liberation movements in Africa. Soviet researchers explored his anti-colonial views and their perception in the African continent. Although based on extensive source material, these publications are overly ideologized. The topic is reconsidered, using previously untapped archival data, as well as publications which appeared in Russia and internationally over the past thirty years. Tolstoy’s first attempts to speak out in the press about the colonial partition of Africa date to the Italo-Ethiopian War of 1895–1896. He denounced colonial expansion as an attempt by governments to distract their people from problems at home and force them to sacrifice themselves for business and political interests of others. Tolstoy advised people in metropoles not to take part in colonial schemes, and prompted colonised peoples to defend their rights through peaceful means so that the vicious circle of violence could be broken. His anticolonial rhetoric resonated in Africa, and from the beginning of the 20th century, his ideas were accepted as a guideline. M.K. Gandhi, a future leader of the struggle for Indian independence, who spearheaded a civil-rights movement of South African Indians in the 1900s, used Tolstoy’s ideas in developing his tactics of nonviolent resistance (satyagraha). Indirectly, these ideas continued to impact the South African liberation movement thanks to Gandhi’s influence. It was not until 1961 that the African National Congress (ANC) had to form a military organisation to fight against the apartheid regime. Yet the ANC managed to achieve a non-violent transition from apartheid to non-racial democracy. The success is associated with President N.R. Mandela, who shared Tolstoy’s views on the need to abandon armed confrontation.

New Die-Compaction Equations for Powders as a Result of Known Equations Correction: Part 1–Review and Analysis of Various Die-Compaction Equations

The well-known equations for the powder compaction process (PCP) in a rigid die published from the beginning of the last century until today were considered in this review. Most of the considered equations are converted into the dependences of densification pressure on the powder’s relative density. The equations were analyzed and their ability to describe PCP was assessed by defining the coefficient of determination when approximating experimental data on the compaction of various powders. It was shown that most of the equations contain two constants the values of which are determined by fitting the mathematical dependence to the experimental curve. Such equations are able to describe PCP with high accuracy for the compaction of powders up to a relative density of 0.9–0.95. It was also shown that different equations can describe PCP in the density range from the initial density to 0.9 with the same high accuracy, but when the process of compaction is extrapolated to higher values of density, the curves diverge. This indicates the importance of equations that can unambiguously describe PCP to a relative density equal to or close to 1.0. For an adequate description of PCP for relative density greater than 0.95, equations containing three or four constants have proven useful.

Medical and social aspects of the activities of local self-government and the medical community of Yekaterinodar in the late XIX – early XX century

The purpose of the study: to study the medical and social aspects of the activities of public institutions of the city of Yekaterinodar in the early twentieth century, as a reflection of global trends shaping the public health system. Materials and methods: historical-descriptive, comparative-historical, problem-chronological, biographical methods were used in the work. The article is based on published sources and archival materials available to the authors. Results. Currently, there is no doubt that the level of public health depends not only on the activities of medical institutions, the qualifications of doctors, medical staff, but also on the timely comprehensive solution of many social issues with the participation of public and state institutions. The article presents some examples of the formation of such interaction and original solutions to urgent medical and social problems in Yekaterinodar (now Krasnodar) at the end of the XIX – beginning of the XX century. The issues of financing medical institutions, medical salaries and pensions, the organization of measures to combat epidemics, the formation of sanitary services, the opening of new specialized hospital departments, and services for the poorest segments of the population were touched upon. The elements of educational work, ways to solve the problem of high infant mortality and the organization of the first Consultation for infants are shown. Many doctors actively participated in the work of local city government, being “public” of the City Duma and the City Council, thereby contributing to the solution of many social and medical issues, including problems of payment for treatment, different categories of the population and “hospital arrears”. Conclusion . Thus, without having a clear state concept and program for the development of healthcare, the city administration, together with the medical community, demonstrated the desire and possibility of jointly solving many medical and social problems of the city of Yekaterinodar. That is, during this period, the potential properties and understanding of the need for the development of the public health system and sphere were formed in the regional society.

The future of economic relations Russia and Bulgaria in the beginning of the XX century: the view of russian diplomats

Introduction. The article is devoted to the history of relations between Bulgaria and Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. The two states were interested in joint trade and economic development. This issue received a lot of attention in Russian periodicals. The press pointed out great benefits from the economic relations of the two states. Bulgaria at this time was a country with a rapidly developing economy. This state aroused the interest of many European powers. Diplomatic missions occupied the main place in assessing the possibilities of Russian penetration into Bulgaria. Materials and methods. The sources of the article are related to diplomatic materials from the beginning of the 20th century: reports of secretaries of the diplomatic agency in Sofia, reports of the vice-consul in Bulgaria, diaries and memoirs. The main focus is on assessing trading opportunities. When analyzing sources, the author used traditional methods of objectivity and a critical approach, taking into account the subjective nature of these materials. Results. Diplomats believed that Russian commercial and industrial circles, given the rapid development of the domestic market, showed little interest in Bulgaria. Russian entrepreneurs did not have a clear idea of the needs of the Bulgarian consumer, of the Bulgarian companies with which they could conduct trade operations, or of their creditworthiness. Unlike representatives of other countries, especially Austria-Hungary, Russian business made no efforts to develop trade with the Bulgarians. Russian entrepreneurs did not have their own traveling salesmen who traveled around Bulgaria studying the demand of the local population. Interest in Bulgaria was weak because Russian business was associated with domestic economic development. All this had a very negative impact on the development of bilateral trade. Conclusion. In the current conditions, it was not Russia, but Austria-Hungary that played the main role in the development of the Bulgarian economy. This also determined the political sympathies of the Bulgarian authorities. St. Petersburg understood this problem. However, political complications on the peninsula and the outbreak of the First World War did not allow this creative work to be completed, which could have led to a significant increase in the volume of economic relations between Russia and Bulgaria.

Reflection of Everyday Life of the Common Man on the Pages of the "Satyricon" Magazine. Part 2

The article is devoted to the satirical weekly «Satyricon», published in 1908-1914 in St. Petersburg. It set the vector for the development of Russian satirical and humorous journalism for many years to come. Based on the analysis of the materials published in the magazine, the article attempts to look at the world of the layman through the prism of satire and humor, to understand his interests and pressing problems. The author comes to the conclusion that the magazine «Satyricon» reflects almost all aspects of everyday life of the layman: culture, social life, fashion, entertainment. Particular attention in the periodical was given to the political events in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, the activities of the State Duma, and representatives of the political parties of the time. The vivid images of political leaders created by the satirists of the magazine could transform over time, change and be filled with new details, which were followed with great attention by the readers of the magazine.

System of social support for unprotected and poor people in the Kaluga province, 1860s – 1914: regional features, promising directions and source base of research

Introduction. The article discusses the approaches of the state and society to the organization of mechanisms of social support of the population from the 60s of the XIX century to the beginning of the XX century, used in the Kaluga province. The relevance of the study is determined by the significance of finding effective mechanisms of social support for vulnerable segments of the population with a view to their possible application in current realities. Materials and methods. The article raises the issue of identifying and expanding the source base for conducting research. In this study, various types of sources are considered to ensure the possibility of an objective approach to understanding the operation of existing support mechanisms for those in need. Comparative-historical, statistical and other methods of scientific research were used in the work. Results. The main types of sources that allow an objective assessment of the state of the social sphere in the Kaluga province, one of the typical provinces of Central Russia, are identified. The general situation of the said province in the sphere of social support is considered. The main approaches to solving a number of social problems have been studied. In his research, the author comes to the conclusion that the post–reform period became a key one in the history of solving issues of social assistance - public charity in the Russian Empire, when part of the responsibilities for supervision in the social sphere were transferred to the jurisdiction of the subjects of the Russian Empire themselves by partially transferring the mechanisms for providing support to the zemstvos and benefactors in need. It is established that in the Kaluga province, a significant part of the work on creating conditions for solving the social issue has been transferred to the management of private capital. Special attention is paid by the author to the regional peculiarities of solving the issue of social support for vulnerable segments of the population in the Kaluga province. The most promising direction in the comprehensive study of the system of social support for vulnerable segments of the population in the Kaluga province is outlined.

The influence of the judicial complaint initiative of one-courtyard people on the punishment of officials of the Central Chernozem region from the beginning of the XVIII-th to the middle of the XIX-th century

Introduction. This article explores establishing the impact of complaints and lawsuits of one-courtyard people on the punishment of individual representatives of the bureaucratic apparatus of the Central Chernozem region from the beginning of the XVIII century to the middle of the XIX century. The objectives of the article consist of studying various methods of overcoming the vacuum of regional abuses and the punishment of impious officials that followed them, as well as identifying the improvement of the system using the example of landed justice between the XVIII-th and XIX-th centuries. Materials and methods. In the process of working on the study were used analytical-synthetic and comparative-historical methods, as well as retrospective and historiographical analyzes. Results. In the study, the author shows the attempts of smallholders to overcome the vacuum of bureaucratic abuses in the regions. Moreover, both unsuccessful and cases with a favorable outcome are covered. At the same time, the article provides examples of appeals by the descendants of service military people about their land disputes to various levels of government, including the governor, ministries, the Senate, and even the emperor. Then the researcher shows many cases of punishment of officials for their abuses, which are classified according to the severity of the penalties. Finally, the author presents several areas of judiciary and administration of one-courtyard people, which have clearly undergone improvement over time. Conclusion. In the course of working on the article, the researcher concludes that the smallholders often won disputes over the land with landowners and officials, especially after the establishment of the Ministry of State Property. Complaints of the descendants of military service people also often reached their addressees. The consequence of the latest processes was that the punishments of the upcoming «cases» were constantly monitored, and affected almost all levels of government controlled. In this regard, it is impossible to state the complete impunity of the bureaucracy. On the whole, over time, the list of methods for maintaining the vacuum of bureaucratic abuses gradually decreased. However, at the same time with this process, there was an improvement and the invention of new methods of bureaucratic abuses

Muslim mosques of the Yenisei province in the legal framework of the Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th — early 20th century

In this article, the functioning of Muslim parishes in the Elysee province in the second half of the 19th — early 20th centuries is being examined. The paper has been prepared using archival materials of the State Archive of the Krasnoyarsk Territory and Central State Historical Archive of the Republic of Bashkortostan, many of which are being introduced into scientific discourse for the first time. The archival materials are presented by petitions from Muslims of the Yenisei Province, and the associated correspondence from provincial departments and the Orenburg Mohammedan Spiritual Assembly. Based on the analysis of the source base, it has been established that the active construction of religious buildings on the territory of the Yenisei Province by Muslims only started in the beginning of the 20th century. Mosques performed not only a religious function for Muslims, but also a public institution uniting representatives of the Islamic tradition. Despite the fact that the community was obliged to cover all construction and maintenance costs itself, the process of obtaining such permissions was quite lengthy. For example, in the city of Yeniseisk, it took several years for the Muslim community to obtain the permission and build a mosque. The first petition for the permission to build a mosque in Yeniseisk was sent to the Orenburg Mohammedan Spiritual Assembly in 1865, and the mosque itself was built only in 1906. To obtain the permission to build a religious building, the Muslim community had to prove its worth, both before provincial authorities and the Orenburg Mohammedan Spiritual Assembly. A separate decision on the possibility of building a mosque in the region was given by the diocesan authorities in order to establish the fact that a religious building built by Muslims would not infringe on the interests of the Orthodox population, as well as attract the newly baptized people. At the beginning of the 20th century, with the increase in the number of immigrants in the region, there was a discernible trend towards the larger number of Muslim communities in the Yenisei Province, and at the same time of the construction of mosques. Furthermore, during this period, there were certain relaxations in the requirements for religious construction for Mus-lims. However, all these changes, as well as active position of the Muslim population in the region still required lengthy corre-spondence with government officials, as well as spiritual departments, both of the Muslims themselves and the Russian Ortho-dox Church. One of the main problems, which remained intractable even in the beginning of the 20th century, was concerned with the compliance with norms of the Construction Charter regarding the size of the parish. The Yenisei Province remained being a multi-confessional region, where the Muslim community was not always dense.