Bee Races Research Articles

A comparative study of morphological integration in Apis mellifera (Insecta, Hymenoptera)

Morphometric correlation matrices from 11 Mediterranean and European honey bee races have been compared. The degree of integration, measured by the eigenvalue variance of the correlation matrix or by Cheverud's index of integration, varies considerably between races but covaries neither with overall body size nor with the variance of the respective sample. Hence, the degree of morphological integration does not depend on body size or the level of variability The patterns of morphometric correlation are significantly similar among all races, but some minor differences in the patterns could be detected: The similarity between the correlation matrices is independent of the degree of phylogenetic relatedness between the respective races. In all races characters belonin to the same functional and/or developmental unit (leg, wing, abdominal characters) have Eiter correlations than the average. Most of the variation in the pattern of correlation can be expfained as a side effect of variation in the degree of integration. Races with high levels of integration tend to have hiher correlations between the main groups of characters, and races with low levels of integration tave smaller correlations between the main grous of characters, while the basic pattern remains undisturbed. In summary, the comparative analysis of morphometric correlation matrices reveals a picture of stability with respect to the pattern of integration and of variation in the degree of integration, which is random with respect to body size, degree of variability, and phylogeny.

Determining the Relative Abundance of Honey Bee (Apis mellifera L.) Races in Kars Plateau and Evaluating Some of Their Characteristics

Summary During June-July period 2009, 310 honeybee samples were collected from 32 different colonies in Kars Plateau. The majority of the samples (71.6%, n=222) were hybrid form of Apis mellifera. The ratio of Apis mellifera caucasica was 26.5% (n= 82) and only 1.9% (n=6) of samples were found to be A. mellifera remipes. Tarsi length, fore wing length, fore wing width, number of hamulus hind wing, femur length of hind leg, tibia length of hind leg, metatarsus length of hind length, metatarsus width of hind leg of A. mellifera caucasica and that of hybrid form of A. mellifera were measured and the measurements of those morphological characters of different subspecies were compared. In addition of the morphological traits, variation patterns of proteins bades on gel electrophoresis was measured from the two subspecies and their hybrids. Gel electro-phoresis patterns reveal that the total proteins of pure Caucasian race individuals from Ardahan and Kars were similar. On the other hand, the protein bands of pure Caucasian race individuals (66 kD, 45 kD, 29 kD and 18 kD) showed clear differences from that of hybrid individuals.

Morphological diversity and racial determination of the honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) population in the Republic of Macedonia

SummaryWorker honey bee samples were collected from six different locations spread throughout the Republic of Macedonia. Morphometric analyses were performed on the front right wing venation of workers (n=1800) and measurements were obtained for a total of 21 characteristics. The bees were examined according to the apiaries from which they originated (n=6) and in equal groups (n=300). Our aim was to determine the diversity of the sampled workers, as well as to examine the relationship with other honey bee races. The racial relationship of the total sample of analysed bees expressed in percentages were: Apis mellifera macedonica: 15.87%; Apis mellifera ligustica. 12.70%; Apis mellifera carnica: 10.32%; Apis mellifera caucasica: 4.76%; Apis mellifera mellifera 4.76%. The variability in honey bee populations found thus provides a suitable basis for the selection of large number of subpopulations with desired biological or production characteristics for introducing a National Bee Breeding Programme in the Republic of Macedonia.

Brains and brain components in African and European honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae)—a volumetric comparison

SummaryThe volumes of brains and major brain regions were compared between European (EHB) and African (AHB) honey bee workers. The brain volume was not significantly different between the two bee races. The overall composition of major brain regions appeared similar except for the lobes of the mushroom bodies, which were significantly larger in EHB. Discriminant analysis indicated that brains from EHB could be distinguished from those of AHB based on the volumes of the central body together with either the mushroom body lobe or the mushroom body calyx. Whether learning and memory capacities differ between AHB and EHB based on the size of mushroom body lobes and whether the differences are adaptive due to the environments where EHB and AHB originated are discussed.

Perception of Avocado Bloom (Lauraceae: Persea americana) by the Honey Bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Apis mellifera)

Honey bees (Apis mellifera Linnaeus 1758) are important avocado pollinators, but due to low attractiveness of avocado flowers, pollination is often inadequate. Several bioassays compared the behavior of honey bees in response to rewards of avocado and non-avocado honey/nectar. When both honeys were available, bees preferred the non-avocado honey. When avocado honey alone was presented, it was consumed by the bees, but resulted in a smaller crop load and lower learning performance. The component responsible for the bees' disinclination to avocado nectar was subsequently explored. The contribution of carbohydrates, volatiles, amino acids, phenolic compounds and minerals to the repellency of bees from'avocado nectar was tested. Among the tested components high mineral concentration in avocado nectar and honey, mainly of potassium but also of phosphorus, magnesium and sulfur, was identified as a major cause for the repelling effect of the avocado nectar. The possibility of a genetic predisposition for avocado nectar foraging was also examined. Consistent differences were found between bee races and between colonies. These results were used to establish two genetic lines with high or low tendency to forage on avocado flowers. The approach presented in the review can be generalized for understanding factors that affect the evaluation of plant species by their pollinators.

Nosema ceranae, a new microsporidian parasite in honeybees in Europe

Twelve samples of adult honey bees from different regions of Spain from colonies with clear signs of population depletion, positive to microsporidian spores using light microscopy (1% of total positive samples analysed), were selected for molecular diagnosis. PCR specific primers for a region of the 16S rRNA gene of Microsporidia were developed and the PCR products were sequenced and compared to GenBank entries. The sequenced products of 11 out of the 12 samples were identical to the corresponding Nosema ceranae sequence. This is the first report of N. ceranae in colonies of Apis mellifera in Europe. The suggested link of the infections to clinical disease symptoms makes imperative a study of the virulence of N. ceranae in European races of honey bees.

Feral honey bees in pine forest landscapes of east Texas

In 1990 the Africanized honey bee, a descendent of Apis mellifera scutellata, was identified in south Texas [Hunter, L.A., Jackman, J.A., Sugden, E.A., 1992. Detection records of Africanized honey bees in Texas during 1990, 1991 and 1992. Southwestern Entomol. 18, 79–89]. The potential impact of this immigrant on feral and managed colonies was the subject of considerable speculation. The goal of this study was to investigate the diversity of feral honey bee races in pine forest landscapes of east Texas, subsequent to immigration of A. m. scutellata. The specific objectives were (i) to assess the immigration of A. m. scutellata into east Texas pine forest landscapes and (ii) to evaluate the suitability of the pine forest landscape to feral honey bees. This mesoscale landscape study was conducted on the Sam Houston National Forest in east Texas. Swarm traps and aerial pitfall traps were used to monitor feral honey bees. Spatial databases were used to evaluate suitability of the pine forest landscape for honey bees. Scoring mitochondrial DNA type (mitotypes), we found representatives of A. mellifera scutellata, eastern European, western European, and A. mellifera lamarckii races in pine forest landscapes of east Texas. The conclusions that follow from this aspect of the investigation are (i) honey bees are a ubiquitous component of the pine forest landscape in east Texas, (ii) mitotype diversity persists subsequent to the immigration of A. m. scutellata, and (iii) A. m. scutellata is an added element of the mitotype diversity in the landscape. To evaluate quantitatively the suitability of the pine forest to feral honey bees, we used a spatial database for the study area and FRAGSTATS. The landscape structure in 1256 ha units surrounding six swarms of honey bees captured in the swarm traps was examined. The metrics used to characterize the kind, number, size, shape, and configuration of elements forming the landscape, defined a heterogeneous environment for honey bees that included sufficient food and habitat resources needed for survival, growth, and reproduction. The conclusions that follow from this aspect of the investigation are (1) although classified as a pine forest, management practices and other human activities have altered the landscape and thereby created food and habitat resources suitable for honey bees, (2) the forestry practices associated specifically with road corridor maintenance, stream side corridor protection, RCW management, and Wilderness Area management introduce structural heterogeneity to the forest landscape which enriches the diversity and abundance of early successional flowering plants and provides cavity sites needed by honey bees, (3) ranching, farming, and urbanization within the study area also create these conditions, and (4) based on inferences from melissopalynology, honey bees provide pollination services for a broad representation of native and introduced flowering plant species of the pineywoods ecoregion.

Beekeeping potential in Turkey

Turkey is a country with great beekeeping potential, economically valuable honey bee races, varied geography and rich floral resources. There is also good potential for migratory beekeeping. The data used in this article was obtained from 80 provinces in Turkey via a questionnaire.

Royal jelly production in East Africa: performance potential of the honey bees, Apis mellifera scutellata and Apis mellifera monticola in Kenya

SUMMARYThis is the first study to evaluate the royal jelly production potential of two honey bee races in Kenya, Apis mellifera monticola and Apis mellifera scutellata. No significant differences were observed in cell acceptance rates and royal jelly yields between the two races. However, the age of larvae at grafting, supplementary feeding and time between grafting and harvest had significant effects on cell acceptance rates and royal jelly yields.

Experimental study on the toxicity of imidacloprid given in syrup to honey bee (Apis mellifera) colonies

Two groups of eight honey bee colonies were fed with two different concentrations of imidacloprid in saccharose syrup during summer (each colony was given 1 litre of saccharose syrup containing 0.5 microg litre(-1) or 5 microg litre(-1) of imidacloprid on 13 occasions). Their development and survival were followed in parallel with control hives (unfed or fed with saccharose syrup) until the end of the following winter. The parameters followed were: adult bee activity (number of bee entering the hive and pollen carrying activity), adult bee population level, capped brood area, frequency of parasitic and other diseases, mortality, number of frames with brood after wintering and a global score of colonies after wintering. The only parameters linked to feeding with imidacloprid-supplemented saccharose syrup when compared with feeding with non-supplemented syrup were: a statistically non-significant higher activity index of adult bees, a significantly higher frequency of pollen carrying during the feeding period and a larger number of capped brood cells. When imidacloprid was no longer applied, activity and pollen carrying were re-established at a similar level for all groups. Repeated feeding with syrup supplemented with imidacloprid did not provoke any immediate or any delayed mortality before, during or following the next winter, whereas such severe effects are described by several French bee keepers as a consequence of imidacloprid use for seed dressing in neighbouring cultures. In any case, during the whole study, mortality was very low in all groups, with no difference between imidacloprid-fed and control colonies. Further research should now address several hypotheses: the troubles described by bee keepers have causes other than imidacloprid; if such troubles are really due to this insecticide, they may only be observed either when bees consume contaminated pollen, when no other sources of food are available, in the presence of synergic factors (that still need to be identified), with some particular races of bees or when colonies are not strong and healthy.

Directional change in a suite of foraging behaviors in tropical and temperate evolved honey bees ( Apis mellifera L.)

The concept of a suite of foraging behaviors was introduced as a set of traits showing associative directional change as a characterization of adaptive evolution. I report how naturally selected differential sucrose response thresholds directionally affected a suite of honey bee foraging behaviors. Africanized and European honey bees were tested for their proboscis extension response thresholds to ascending sucrose concentrations, reared in common European colonies and, captured returning from their earliest observed foraging flight. Race constrained sucrose response threshold such that Africanized bees had significantly lower sucrose response thresholds. A Cox proportional hazards regression model of honey bee race and sucrose response threshold indicated that Africanized bees were 29% (P<0.01) more at risk to forage over the 30-day experimental period. Sucrose response threshold organized age of first foraging such that each unit decrease in sucrose response threshold increased risk to forage by 14.3% (P<0.0001). Africanized bees were more likely to return as pollen and water foragers than European foragers. Africanized foragers returned with nectar that was significantly less concentrated than European foragers. A comparative analysis of artificial and naturally selected populations with differential sucrose response thresholds and the common suite of directional change in foraging behaviors is discussed. A suite of foraging behaviors changed with a change in sucrose response threshold that appeared as a product of functional ecological adaptation.

Infestation and distribution of the mite Varroa destructor in colonies of Africanized bees.

Whereas in several parts of the world varroa is the major pest affecting apiculture, in others the parasite is unknown to many beekeepers because its damage to bees is minor. The impact of the mite Varroa destructor is related to the climatic conditions and the races of Apis mellifera bees in each region where the pest exists. In the present study, the current level of infestation by the mite was assessed to determine the evolution of the pest in Africanized bee colonies in Southern Brazil. This level of infestation was considered low: approximately two mites per one hundred adult bees. This result is similar to that obtained for the same apiary almost five years ago and for others distributed in various regions of Brazil. In the present study, we also estimated the total varroa population and its distribution among brood and adults in each bee colony.

The effects of adult small hive beetles, Aethina tumida (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae), on nests and flight activity of Cape and European honey bees (Apis mellifera)

This study identifies differences in the effects of small hive beetles on flight activity and nests of European-derived honey bees (Apis mellifera) in the United States and Cape honey bees (Apis mellifera capensis) in South Africa. Treatments consisted of control colonies (< 5 beetles/colony) and experimental colonies receiving beetles (treatment). Absconding day did not differ significantly between treatment or bee race but absconding was greater between the two treatments in European colonies than in Cape ones. Cape bees used significantly more propolis than European bees. Honey stores were significantly greater in Cape honey bee colonies than in European ones. Bee weight did not differ significantly between treatments or bee race. Treatment did not significantly affect bee populations, brood area, or average flight activity in Cape colonies but it did significantly lower all of these in European colonies. The effects of treatment in European colonies are symptomatic of absconding preparation. Treatment significantly lowered the amount of pollen stores in Cape colonies, but this effect was not found in European colonies. The number of beetles in control colonies was significantly higher in European colonies than Cape ones while the percentage of beetles remaining in non-absconding treated colonies was higher in Cape colonies than European ones. These data indicate that adult small hive beetles are sufficient to cause significant harmful effects on colonies of European, but not Cape, honey bees. Aethina tumida / Apis mellifera / Apis mellifera capensis / flight activity / honey bee nests

Identification and function of the hypotrehalosaemic hormone (Mas-AKH) in workers, drones and queens of Apis mellifero ligustica and A. m. carnica

SUMMARYMethanolic extracts of the corpora cardiaca (CC) of foraging workers of the yellow Italian race of honey bees (Apis mellifera ligustica) contained on average 3.0 pmol/pCC (paired corpora cardiaca) of the hypertrehalosaemic hormone, Mas-AKH. The CC of A. m. ligustica nurse bees (8–10 days old) contained only about 1/20th (0.14 pmol/pCC) of the Mas-AKH as that of foragers, and very young bees (2–4 days old) contained no detectable hormone. CC extracts of A. m. ligustica virgin drones and older drones (> 8 days) also contained Mas-AKH, but much less (0.23 pmol/pCC) than foraging worker bees. CC extracts from both virgin and mated (egg laying) ligustica/carnica queens, as well as from foraging workers or drones of the brown European race of honey bees (Apis mellifera carnica) all lacked detectable Mas-AKH or any other related peptides. There was no elevation of the total blood sugar titre in any caste of either ligustica or carnica when injected with either synthetic Mas-AKH or with extracts of their respective corpora cardiaca. The amount of fat body and the amount of stored glycogen is small in all castes of both races. The crop in all castes is large and contained up to 30% of the total body weight. In conclusion, none of the castes of either race seemed to use a hormone to mobilize sugar from the fat body or other glycogen stores (such as the muscle), but rather they depend for all activities entirely on sugars in the crop.

African honey bees (Apis mellifera scutellata) and nosema (Nosema apis) infections

SUMMARYNosema apis has been found on all continents where there is beekeeping using Apis mellifera. However, there are few data on the prevalence and impact of Nosema apis in honey bee colonies in tropical climates and it may be uncertain if all records of microsporidia in honey bees actually are records of the same parasite. Also, the development of N. apis has not been documented in tropical races of honey bees. We sampled honey bees from five different colonies in two apiaries on a weekly basis for a full year in Zimbabwe and investigated the samples for N. apis. The development of the parasite was monitored by infection experiments. The gene sequence of the 16S small subunit ribosomal RNA gene of a Zimbabwean isolate of microsporidia from honey bees was sequenced and compared to sequences for N. apis registered in GenBank. The molecular results demonstrate that the Zimbabwean isolates of microsporidia are N. apis. Sampling results show that N. apis may occur at high levels of prevalence at colony level under tropical conditions and develop similar to European records in individual bees. Thus, the investigated parasite probably carries no further risks to beekeeping if transported with live bees between different regions.

Racial Differences in Division of Labor in Colonies of the Honey Bee (Apis mellifera)

We measured the age at onset of foraging in colonies derived from three races of European honey bees, Apis mellifera mellifera, Apis mellifera caucasica and Apis mellifera ligustica, using a cross‐fostering design that involved six unrelated colonies of each race. There was a significant effect of the race of the introduced bees on the age at onset of foraging: cohorts of A. m. ligustica bees showed the earliest onset, regardless of the race of the colony they were introduced to. There also was a significant effect of the race of the host colony: cohorts of bees introduced into mellifera colonies showed the earliest onset of foraging, regardless of the race of the bees introduced. Significant inter‐trial differences also were detected, primarily because of a later onset of foraging in trials conducted during the autumn (September–October). These results demonstrate differences among European races of honey bees in one important component of colony division of labor. They also provide a starting point for analyses of the evolution of division of labor under different ecological conditions.

A review of beekeeping in Arab countries

Recent status of beekeeping, races of honey bees, bee forage plants, honey production, pests and diseases of honey bee colonies in: Algeria, Egypt, United Arab Emirates, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia and Yemen are described in this article. The history of beekeeping and research activities in: Algeria, Egypt, United Arab Emirates, Iraq, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan and Tunisia are also included.

Varroa jacobsoni infestation of adult Africanized and Italian honey bees (Apis mellifera) in mixed colonies in Brazil

Different levels of infestation with the mite Varroa jacobsoni have been observed in the various Apis mellifera races. In general, bees of European races are more susceptible to the mite than African honey bees and their hybrids. In Brazil honey bee colonies are not treated against the mite, though apparently both climate and bee race influence the mite infestation. Six mixed colonies were made with Italian and Africanized honey bees. The percentage infestation by this parasite was found to be significantly lower in adult Africanized (1.69 ± 0.44) than Italian bees (2.79 ± 0.65). This ratio was similar to that found in Mexico, even though the Africanized bees tested there had not been in contact with varroa, compared to more than 20 years of the coexistence in Brazil. However, mean mite infestation in Brazil on both kinds of bees was only about a third of that found in Mexico.

Mass spectral identification of the tergal gland secretions of female castes of two African honey bee races (Apis mellifera)

SUMMARYThe tergal gland secretions in queens, workers and pseudoqueens of Apis mellifera capensis and Apis mellifera scutellata are composed of long-chain fatty acids, long-chain esters and a linear series of unsaturated hydrocarbons. The cuticular extracts, on the other hand, consisted of a linear series (C23-C31) of saturated hydrocarbons and were shown to be identical for both A. m. capensis and A. m. scutellata queens and workers. The major compound in the tergal gland secretion for all test groups, was (Z)-9- octadecenoic acid. Virgin queens are distinguishable from mated queens (P = 0.0001) and workers (P = 0.0001) in that they secrete a series of long-chain esters, the predominant ester being decyl decanoate. A. m. capensis workers differed significantly (P = 0.0001) from A. m. capensis mated queens, as did pseudoqueens (P = 0.001), in their tergal gland secretion profiles. Significant inter-racial differences were found between the tergal gland secretions of mated queens (P = 0.0001) and workers (P = 0.001) from the two contiguous African races, but not between the virgin queens (P = 0.39). Consequently, mated queens and workers of these two African races can be separated on their tergal gland secretion profiles.

DNA RFLPs at a highly polymorphic locus distinguish European and African subspecies of the honey bee Apis mellifera L. and suggest geographical origins of New World honey bees

AbstractA highly polymorphic locus in the honey bee, Apis mellifera L., was detected with genomic probe pB178. Eighty‐five alleles, consisting of MspI and DdeI RFLPs, were found among the Old and New World bees tested. Forty‐one MspI and 43 DdeI restriction fragment patterns, or variants, were identified. Variants and alleles were discontinuously distributed in Old World European and African subspecies. Principal coordinate analysis of the genetic distances between the alleles resulted in the identification of three distinct groups corresponding to three groups of honey bee races with historically different geographical distributions: east European A. m. ligustica and A. m. caucasica; west European A. m. mellifera; and South African A. m. scutellata. The clustering of alleles into these groups is consistent with previous honey bee phylogeographic studies, employing other nuclear and mitochondrial DNA markers, which in part support the evolutionary history of the honey bee hypothesized by Ruttner based on morphometric and allozyme data. The majority of alleles in bees from the USA grouped with those found in east European bees, while other alleles grouped with alleles found in A. m. mellifera. While the majority of the alleles in neotropical bees grouped with or were identical to African alleles, other alleles grouped with alleles found in A. m. mellifera, A. m. ligustica, and A. m. caucasica. Clues to the ancestry of neotropical bees may be found in the identification of alleles that were identical or more similar to alleles found in South African and west European bees; evidence for west European ancestry has been suggested using other taxonomic characters that were not unique to west European bees. Both west European and African alleles were found in individual neotropical colonies, which may indicate that honey bee subspecies which evolved allopatrically have hybridized in the human‐assisted extension of their original geographical ranges.