Colony Collapse Research Articles

Safeguarding Bee Health: Insights from a Collaborative Monitoring and Prevention Project Against Pesticide Poisonings

In recent decades, bee poisoning due to pesticides and agrochemicals has increased, posing significant challenges to honey bee health and contributing to the so-called “Colony Collapse Disorder” (CCD). Poor knowledge about the level of exposure of bee colonies to pesticides and agrochemicals, whether from the environment or beekeeping management practices, is a major limiting factor in preventing these diseases. Collaboration among different stakeholders, such as beekeeping associations, local veterinary authorities, and researchers, is essential to create monitoring programs that can collect these data and enable the prompt implementation of surveillance and preventive actions to address potential bee colony poisoning incidents caused by these contaminants. The present study describes the results obtained through a collaborative initiative that was implemented for monitoring and preventing pesticide-induced bee poisonings in a territory of northern Italy where the exposure of honey bee colonies to different types of pesticides and agrochemicals may occur. Four sentinel apiaries were selected based on possible sources of pollution throughout the territory. Pollen samples were collected at different times during the years 2021–2022 and analyzed for pesticides using gas and liquid chromatography tandem quadrupole mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS and LC-MS/MS) techniques. The findings showed the presence of a number of pesticides, such as pyrethroids, permethrin, cypermethrin, amitraz, and pendimethalin, at varying concentrations. Acute bee mortality was observed in a field case related to pyrethroid exposure in 2022, in an urban area. These results confirm the need for timely interventions, improved sampling methods, and continuous monitoring to safeguard bee populations. Collaboration with local beekeepers and public authorities is thus essential in addressing pesticide use and bee health challenges, fostering efficient communication and training efforts to support sustainable beekeeping.

Physiological and behavioral effects of titanium dioxide nanoparticle exposure on stingless bee foragers.

Bee population decline is associated with various stressors, including exposure to pollutants. Among these, titanium dioxide (TiO2), an emerging nanoparticle (NP) pollutant, potentially affects living organisms, including bees. This study evaluates the impact of TiO2 NPs ingestion (1.35 or 13.5 µg/mL) on the behavior and physiology of the stingless bee Partamona helleri. X-ray spectroscopy confirmed the presence of Ti in the bees' gut, and 3D X-ray microscopy revealed a reduction in body volume. Although survival, food consumption, flight, and respiration were unaffected. In addition, bees exposed to 13.5 µg/mL of TiO2 NPs exhibited reduced walking distances. TiO2 NPs exposure decreased the total hemocyte count, with notable changes in the proportions of specific hemocyte types: decreased the proportions of plasmatocytes in bees exposed to 13.5 µg/mL, and decreased the granulocytes, and increased the prohemocytes in both concentrations. Furthermore, enzymatic activity was affected with increased levels of catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), alongside a decrease in glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity. These findings suggest that TiO2 NPs may pose a risk to bee health, highlighting the need for further research to fully understand the implications of nanoparticles exposure on pollinators.

Prevalence of pathogens in abnormal honey bees in South Korea, 2020-2023.

South Korea's beekeeping industry has been facing a major crisis due to colony collapse disorder (CCD), manifesting since the winter of 2021. CCD in South Korea is presumed to be caused by a combination of factors, including an abnormal climate, pesticide use, declining source plants, and increased honey bee diseases. We examined the prevalence of 12 major honey bee (Apis mellifera) pathogens by sampling 3,707 colonies with abnormal behavior and suspected pathogen infections from 1,378 apiaries nationwide between 2020 and 2023. Black queen cell virus (BQCV), deformed wing virus (DWV), Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV), and Vairimorpha (Nosema) ceranae had the highest infection rates among honey bees in South Korea. BQCV had the highest infection rate (83.3% in 2023) and was highly prevalent throughout the year, regardless of the season. DWV (48.7%) and IAPV (41.3%) had the highest infection rates in October-December, corresponding to the winter season. Among the 12 honey bee pathogens, acute bee paralysis virus and Kashmir bee virus were rarely detected; the remaining 10 honey bee pathogens were detected throughout the year. The differences in honey bee pathogen prevalence among regions were not significant. We suggest that South Korean honey bees are highly exposed to viral pathogens, possibly resulting in the loss of unhealthy honey bees during the winter. Our study is expected to help identify trends in the occurrence of honey bee pathogens in South Korea and predict outbreaks to prepare a prevention system and appropriate control measures for honey bee pathogens.

A Study of Heat Insulation Methods for Enhancing the Internal Temperature on Artificial Stingless Bee Hive

The stingless bees have gained a large popularity among the beekeepers, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions such as the Americas, Africa, and Southeast Asia. This is because the honey of stingless bees has a distinct flavour and is highly valued for its medicinal qualities. Traditionally, stingless bee colonies constructed from wood logs are fragile and vulnerable to outside attacks. These predator or parasite attacks can cause Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) if not eliminated. Thus, a PVC, 3D-printed PET-G, and acrylic artificial hive has been created to replace the old one. According to earlier research, stingless bees are especially susceptible to temperatures above 38°C. This paper's main goal is to discuss the results of studies on the best artificial hive insulation method. Over a month and a half, clay, wood powder, polystyrene, bubble aluminium foil, and a water- cooling system were tested as insulators. Results shows that artificial hives with bubble aluminium foil have the biggest average difference between internal and external temperatures (6.4°C) and are closest to traditional hives (8.6°C). The average temperature difference between the artificial hive's exterior and inside was 2.9°C without heat insulation. Clay-insulated artificial hives have the lowest standard deviation value for humidity at 0.46. Since temperature is vital to stingless bee survival, bubble aluminium foil container is the best insulation solution since it increases heat resistance more than other materials.

Biodiversity of Non-Apis Bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea) in the Potohar Region of Pakistan

Bees are essential for providing ecosystem services such as pollination to many crops worldwide. However, there is growing concern over the decline of bee populations, which threatens agricultural productivity. Despite the known importance of bees, including non-Apis bees, in crop pollination, their diversity and distribution remain understudied in the Potohar region of Pakistan. The current study addresses this gap by assessing the biodiversity of non-Apis bees across five districts of the Potohar region, Pakistan: Attock, Chakwal, Jhelum, Rawalpindi, and Islamabad. The objective was to evaluate the species richness, diversity, and evenness using various richness and diversity indices. A total of 2005 specimens, representing 27 species from 13 genera and five families (Apidae, Halictidae, Colletidae, Megachilidae, and Andrenidae), were collected over 24 surveys conducted between 2012 and 2015. Two richness indices, Shannon’s Species Richness Index and Margalef’s Richness Index, showed moderate to high species richness across localities, with values ranging from 2.378 to 4.186 and 1.508 to 2.711, respectively. Simpson’s Index and Simpson’s Reciprocal Index exhibited dominance and high diversity across sites, with values ranging from 0.094 to 0.880 and 4.446 to 11.315, respectively. Additionally, the Shannon–Wiener and Shannon Equitability indices indicated fairly even species distributions across localities. A correlation analysis revealed strong positive relationships between most indices, except for Simpson’s Reciprocal Index, which showed negative correlations with the other indices. These findings provide crucial insights into the biodiversity of non-Apis bees in the Potohar region and underscore the importance of maintaining diverse pollinator communities to support sustainable agriculture in the area.

Application of Machine Learning and Deep Learning Models in the Supervision of Apiculture

Honey bees are well known for crop pollination and honey production which in turn plays a vital role in global agriculture. They face various threats from parasites, ants, hive beetles, pesticides, pollutants, toxins, and also hive robberies which could finally lead to the collapse of colonies. These major problems have led to the worldwide decline of honey bees. Thus, determining colony strength has gained importance in sustainable beekeeping. Machine Learning (ML) techniques provide various solutions for these problems by accurately monitoring and detecting the hive status. This paper reviews such techniques which help in monitoring and detection of other features. This helps the beekeepers to drive control over effective honey extraction and increase productivity.

Stressdrives premature hive exiting behavior that leads to death in young honey bee (Apis mellifera) workers.

The Western honey bee, Apis mellifera, is an economically important pollinator, as well as a tractable species for studying the behavioral intricacies of eusociality. Honey bees are currently being challenged by multiple biotic and environmental stressors, many of which act concomitantly to affect colony health and productivity. For instance, developmental stress can lead workers to become precocious foragers and to leave the hive prematurely. Precocious foragers have decreased flight time and lower foraging efficiency, which can ultimately lower colony productivity and even lead to colony collapse. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that stress during pupal development can cause young workers to exit the hive prematurely before they are physically able to fly. This premature exiting behavior results in death outside the hive soon thereafter. To determine how various stressors may lead bees to perform this behavior, we subjected workers during the last pupal stage to either cold stress (26°C for 24h), heat stress (39°C for 24h), or Varroa destructor mite parasitization, and compared the rate of premature hive exits between stressed bees and their respective control counterparts. Upon emergence, we individually tagged focal bees in all treatment groups and introduced them to a common observation hive. We then followed tagged bees over time and monitored their survivorship, as well as their likelihood of performing the premature hive exiting behavior. We also dissected the hypopharyngeal glands of all treatment and control bees sampled. We found that significantly more bees in all three treatment groups exited the hive prematurely compared to their control counterparts. Bees in all treatment groups also had significantly smaller hypopharyngeal glands than control bees. Our results suggest that premature hive exiting behavior is driven by stress and is potentially a form of accelerated age polyethism that leads to premature death.

Review of the Beekeeping Vigilance Methods and Perspectives

A collapse of bee colonies, for the first time in Morocco, of unknown origin, was announced on January 21, 2022 by the National Office for Food Safety (ONSSA). Causes were mentioned such as the unprecedented drought affecting the country and climate change as well as the use of pesticides and the appearance of new hive parasites and viruses. Colony collapse disorder (CCD) has been reported in several parts of the world, including Europe, Canada and Asia. Due to the agro-economic and ecological interest of the bee in the pollination of fruit trees and various seasonal and annual crops, the condition is considered alarming. Hence the need for an integrated control program that uses various monitoring measures and a set of mechanical, physical, biological and chemical control methods against hive pests. A census of the observation and countermeasures of Morocco and at the level of the world in the face of this problem was carried out. Viral diseases (<i>Dicistroviridae </i>in the United States) or parasites (in Spain, the fungus <i>Nosema</i> <i>cerenae</i>, <i>varroa</i> destructor in Canada, <i>Varroa</i>, itself vector of the virus), livestock management problems (transhumance and inbreeding) and the use of pesticides (the Gaucho, banned on sunflower since 1999 in France) remain the most studied causes. Surveillance and vigilance networks for beekeepers whose objective is to continuously inform the beekeeping sector of the general state of health of bees (mortality, theft of hives, invasions by other insects and parasites, etc.) everywhere in the world are essential. The <i>ApiVigi</i>® network is an example.

Diversity of Honeybee Behavior Is a Potential Inbuilt Trait for Varroa Tolerance: A Basic Tool for Breeding Varroa-Resistant Strains

The ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor is well known for transmitting a number of viruses that can contribute to the collapse of honeybee colonies. To date, the many control measures put in place to limit the spread of V. destructor have yielded no satisfactory results. This is challenging because the effect of the parasite on honeybee colonies is becoming notorious. This has weakened the beekeeping industry and reduced pollination services, which may contribute to global food insecurity in the future. Therefore, it is necessary to put in place possible control measures and outline sustainable approaches to mitigate research efforts against the Varroa destructor. Extensive research to elaborate on the best possible solution has revealed that the selective breeding of naturally occurring V. destructor immune-related traits of honeybee strains is sustainable. Since the Integrated Pest Management approach was introduced, while still being very unreliable, there are open questions as to what control strategy could be considered effective. After cross-examination of existing strategies, a more practical way could be the adoption of an integrated approach. This approach should involve the association of selective breeding of honeybee colonies with V. destructor immune-related traits and the application of soft chemical treatment.

Robust pollination for tomato farming using deep learning and visual servoing

Abstract In this work, we propose a novel approach for tomato pollination that utilizes visual servo control. The objective is to meet the growing demand for automated robotic pollinators to overcome the decline in bee populations. Our approach focuses on addressing this challenge by leveraging visual servo control to guide the pollination process. The proposed method leverages deep learning to estimate the orientations and depth of detected flower, incorporating CAD-based synthetic images to ensure dataset diversity. By utilizing a 3D camera, the system accurately estimates flower depth information for visual servoing. The robustness of the approach is validated through experiments conducted in a laboratory environment with a 3D printed tomato flower plant. The results demonstrate a high detection rate, with a mean average precision of 91.2 %. Furthermore, the average depth error for accurately localizing the pollination target is impressively minimal, measuring only 1.1 cm. This research presents a promising solution for tomato pollination, showcasing the effectiveness of visual-guided servo control and its potential to address the challenges posed by diminishing bee populations in greenhouses.

Unraveling the acute sublethal effects of acetamiprid on honey bee neurological redox equilibrium

Understanding the off-target effects of neonicotinoid insecticides, including acetamiprid, which is the most commonly applied agricultural chemical, is crucial as it may be an important factor of negative impact on pollinator insects causing a number of problems such as colony collapse disorder (CCD) of honey bees. While CCD is known as a multifactorial disease, the role of pesticides in this context is not negligible. Therefore, it is essential to gain a deeper comprehension of the mechanisms through which they function. The aim of this research was to study the effects of sublethal acetamiprid doses on honey bees, specifically focusing on the redox homeostasis of the brain. According to our findings, it can be confirmed that acetamiprid detrimentally impacts the redox balance of the brain increasing hydrogen peroxide and malondialdehyde levels, suggesting consequential lipid peroxidation and membrane damage as consequences. Moreover, acetamiprid had negative effects on the glutathione system and total antioxidant capacity, as well as key enzymes involved in the maintenance of redox homeostasis. In summary, it can be concluded that acetamiprid adversely affected the redox balance of the central nervous system of honey bees in our study. Our findings could potentially contribute to a better understanding of pesticide-related consequences and to improvement of bee health.

Knowledge, attitude, and perceptions of farmers in the Maranhão Amazon regarding the ecological importance of bees

Bees perform an essential pollination service on more than half of all plants worldwide. However, a global decline in bee and other pollinator populations due to anthropic activities threatens these services. Understanding the interactions between farmers and bees is essential for developing policies to protect pollinators. This study sought to investigate and document the knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions of farmers in the Maranhão Amazon in Brazil regarding the relevance and function of bees. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 567 farmers from 54 rural communities, located in six counties. The results showed that participating farmers understood the importance of bees, acknowledging the pollination of plants and honey production as their primary functions. Farmers also observed that bee populations have reduced over the years and cited anthropic actions (deforestation, slash-and-burn agriculture, and pesticide use) as the most impacting elements. Although farmers recognized the ecological functions of bees, none were willing to implement any novel practices on their properties to preserve bee populations. Our results identified a need to stimulate the implementation of activities that safeguard bees, for instance via projects that train local farmers and encourage them to contribute to bee preservation, implement sustainable agricultural practices, and reduce pesticide use. Such projects can assist farmers in the recovery and reforestation of degraded areas in the region.

How do termite baits work? implication of subterranean termite colony demography on the successful implementation of baits.

In 1995, the launch of the first commercial chitin synthesis inhibitor (CSI) bait led to the transformation of the subterranean termite control industry around the world. Their slow mode of action, which relies on both their ability to be transferred among nestmates and termite molting biology, has made them cost-effective solutions for subterranean termite colony elimination while minimizing the introduction of pesticides into the soil toward an environmentally sustainable strategy. However, despite successful commercial implementations, the acceptance of their use varies within the pest control industry around the world. Notably, the nuanced complexity of how CSI baits lead to colony elimination upon feeding by termite foragers has, in part, remained elusive for the past 3 decades, allowing for long-lasting misconceptions to persist. A recent series of studies has since provided complementary elements of understanding how CSI baits utilize termites' inherent colony demography, behavior, and physiology to trigger colony elimination after a characteristic succession of events within the colony collapse process. I here provide a synthetic overview of subterranean termite colony characteristics when exposed to CSI baits using Coptotermes (Wasmann) (Blattodea: Heterotermitidae) as a primary model system. The changes in colony demography through the colony collapse reflect how the mode of action of CSI baits makes them a prime solution for sustainable subterranean termite pest management. Following decades of innovation, ongoing interactions among termite researchers, bait product manufacturers, and pest management providers must continue to bring solutions to existing and emerging termite pest problems around the world.

New culling technique provides localised reductions in interspecific aggression and density of Noisy Miners (Manorina melanocephala) without recolonisation

ABSTRACT The Noisy Miner (Manorina melanocephala) is a native Australian honeyeater that reduces avian biodiversity at sites it occupies through aggressive defence. Culling to remove miners has had limited success in some areas due to rapid recolonisation. This experiment trialled ‘doughnut culls’ as a new approach to reduce Noisy Miner aggression within a central area of colonies, by removing up to half the miners present within a 50 m radius of an identified central location in 29 different colonies on the New England Tablelands of NSW. Aggression from miners onsite within this central area was quantified before and after culling by presenting 3D printed models of three different bird species with accompanying vocal playback to resident miners at the centre of culled areas. These presentations identified a significant decline in Noisy Miner aggression onsite after doughnut culls, with this reduced rate of aggression (e.g. over 50% reduction in the maximum number of miners within a 20 m radius of models) remaining until the conclusion of the experiment at 28 days post culling, a timeframe commensurate with the duration of many passerine nesting attempts. Social hierarchy changes among remaining Noisy Miners may be the primary cause of this reduced aggression, with sufficient miners remaining onsite to prevent colony collapse and thus any recolonisation. While additional trials during peak Noisy Miner dispersal periods are warranted, this method provides an effective tool for land managers to reduce localised Noisy Miner aggression over the short to medium term when high conservation areas are identified.

Multivariate optimization of the extraction and cleaning procedure to determine neonicotinoids in honey from intensive livestock and agricultural production areas by UHPLC-MS/MS

Neonicotinoid insecticides have been associated with the decline of bee population. This study aimed to investigate the occurrence of neonicotinoids in honey samples from apiaries located in areas of intensive livestock and agricultural production in Argentina. For this purpose, a QuEChERS-based analytical method was developed and optimized using multivariate strategies to reduce the processing time and the necessary amount of salts and sorbents. Validation was based on SANTE 11312/2021 guidelines, with recovery percentages between 79 and 120 %, and limits of quantitation between 0.25 and 1.00 µg kg−1. The present study provides a highly sensitive and reliable method for ascertaining residue levels of eight insecticides in 151 honey samples using liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). The presence of three of the target analytes was determined in 13 % of the samples, indicating that honey bee colonies were exposed to neonicotinoids, especially imidacloprid and thiamethoxam. The maximum residue limits were not exceeded in any of the samples; therefore, there is no risk to consumers from the public health point of view.

Effects of the insecticide acetamiprid and the fungicide azoxystrobin on locomotion activity and mushroom bodies of solitary bee Centris analis

Pesticide use is a major factor contributing to the global decline in bee populations. Sublethal effects, such as behavior alterations, are neglected in pesticide regulation for pollinators. However, these effects can bring important information to understanding the impacts of pesticides on bees' daily activities. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effects of the insecticide acetamiprid (7 ng/μL) and the fungicide azoxystrobin (10 ng/μL) on the behavior of the Neotropical solitary bee Centris analis. Female and male bees were exposed to these chemicals continuously for 48 h, followed by an additional 48 h without contaminated food, totaling 96 h of observation. We used five experimental groups: control, solvent control, insecticide, fungicide, and pesticide mixture (insecticide + fungicide). Behavioral alterations based on locomotion and light response were assessed by video tracking at 48 (end of pesticide exposure) and 96 h (end of bioassay). In addition, after recording bees at 96 h, the individuals were anesthetized for brain collection and histological evaluation of mushroom bodies to evaluate if pesticides can damage their neurons and impair the cognitive processes and responses of bees to sensory stimuli. Bees exposed to acetamiprid and pesticide mixture showed lethargic movements and impaired locomotion at 48 h. Notably, these behavioral effects were no longer evident after the bees consumed uncontaminated food for an additional 48 h, totaling 96 h from the start of pesticide exposure. Only fungicide exposure did not result in any behavioral or brain histological changes. Therefore, our study showed that acetamiprid at an estimated residual concentration, despite being classified as having low toxicity for bees, can cause significant initial locomotion disruption in solitary bees. These findings highlight the importance of considering sublethal effects in environmental risk assessment.

Comparison between imidacloprid effects on AChE and nAChRα1 in target Aphis craccivora and non-target Apis mellifera: experimental and theoretical approaches

BackgroundNeonicotinoids are widespread insecticides because of their potent effects against aphids and other piercing-sucking insects in addition to having high selectivity toward insects rather than vertebrates. However, they affect severely some non-target insects, mainly honeybee in a phenomenon called colony collapse disorder (CCD).ResultsEffects of imidacloprid (IMI), most used neonicotinoids, on aphid acetylcholinesterase (AChE), in vivo and in vitro were examined; besides, molecular modeling was used to investigate similarities and differences of AChE and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors α1-subunit (nAChRα1) in aphids, target insect, and honeybees, non-target insect. Results showed that aphid AChE was inhibited in vitro, with IC50 108.6 mg/L but not affected in vivo while the mortality was concentration-dependent with high toxicity (LC50 9.50 mg/L); in addition, aphid AChE was more inhibited, in vitro, but with much less effects, in vivo, than that of honeybees. These results indicate that AChE is not the main cause of the observed mortality, but it still has a role in insect resistance system with different responses in both insects. Molecular modeling showed high similarity in primary and secondary structures of AChE indicated by high identity (67%) and low gaps (1%); besides, the same template for both enzymes was auto-selected for homology. In addition, similar positions of the triad amino acids were found in AChE of both insects indicating high similarity. Conversely, the similarity in nAChRα1 in both insects is lower (50% identity and 9% gaps). These gaps (50 amino acids) are found in the intracellular large loop between TM3 and TM4 and account for the observed differences in the nAChRα1 binding sites of in both insects.ConclusionThese observed variations in nAChRα1 structures and binding sites in different insect species can be used as good bases in designing new neonicotinoids that express high effects on target insects with better selectivity to minimize adverse effects on non-target organisms.Graphical

Cryo-EM-based discovery of a pathogenic parvovirus causing epidemic mortality by black wasting disease in farmed beetles

We use cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM) as a sequence- and culture-independent diagnostic tool to identify the etiological agent of an agricultural pandemic. For the past 4 years, American insect-rearing facilities have experienced a distinctive larval pathology and colony collapse of farmed Zophobas morio (superworm). By means of cryo-EM, we discovered the causative agent: a densovirus that we named Zophobas morio black wasting virus (ZmBWV). We confirmed the etiology of disease by fulfilling Koch's postulates and characterizing strains from across the United States. ZmBWV is a member of the family Parvoviridae with a 5,542 nt genome, and we describe intersubunit interactions explaining its expanded internal volume relative to human parvoviruses. Cryo-EM structures at resolutions up to 2.1Å revealed single-strand DNA (ssDNA) ordering at the capsid inner surface pinned by base-binding pockets in the capsid inner surface. Also, we demonstrated the prophylactic potential of non-pathogenic strains to provide cross-protection invivo.

Beehive Smart Detector Device for the Detection of Critical Conditions That Utilize Edge Device Computations and Deep Learning Inferences.

This paper presents a new edge detection process implemented in an embedded IoT device called Bee Smart Detection node to detect catastrophic apiary events. Such events include swarming, queen loss, and the detection of Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) conditions. Two deep learning sub-processes are used for this purpose. The first uses a fuzzy multi-layered neural network of variable depths called fuzzy-stranded-NN to detect CCD conditions based on temperature and humidity measurements inside the beehive. The second utilizes a deep learning CNN model to detect swarming and queen loss cases based on sound recordings. The proposed processes have been implemented into autonomous Bee Smart Detection IoT devices that transmit their measurements and the detection results to the cloud over Wi-Fi. The BeeSD devices have been tested for easy-to-use functionality, autonomous operation, deep learning model inference accuracy, and inference execution speeds. The author presents the experimental results of the fuzzy-stranded-NN model for detecting critical conditions and deep learning CNN models for detecting swarming and queen loss. From the presented experimental results, the stranded-NN achieved accuracy results up to 95%, while the ResNet-50 model presented accuracy results up to 99% for detecting swarming or queen loss events. The ResNet-18 model is also the fastest inference speed replacement of the ResNet-50 model, achieving up to 93% accuracy results. Finally, cross-comparison of the deep learning models with machine learning ones shows that deep learning models can provide at least 3-5% better accuracy results.

Citizen science engagement reveals patterns of long-term persistence of an at risk butterfly in three metropolitan centers

Insect declines have been documented for about twenty years worldwide, and the more recent Bee Colony Collapse Disorder has brought public attention to the issue. With this in mind, the persistence and thriving of an iconic, once-extirpated butterfly, the Atala (Eumaeus atala), in three major metropolitan centers located in southeastern Florida is remarkable and deserves close examination as to how it happened. The Atala butterfly is a charismatic species mostly residing in an urban dominated landscape, and has been a prime target of citizen science engagement since the second re-discovery of the species in 1979 in coastal Miami. Three citizen science actions were instrumental in this recovery: reintroductions, year-long population monitoring afterwards, and participation in annual butterfly counts. In this research, we analyzed three different sets of monitoring data gathered by citizen volunteers to help us determine factors that may influence the Atala butterfly’s persistence. We found that the most labor- and time-demanding citizen science data allowed us to define fine scale population phenological dynamics enabling us to quantify the anecdotal biannual “crash and eruption” cycles, while the median level long-term engagement data revealed a coarse, multiple year crash and eruption population cycle. Our analyses illustrated that the contribution of on-going data collection gained through committed citizen science actions play a critical part in the species conservation strategy, allowing us to apprehend new integral knowledge of the butterfly’s biology, as well as factors influencing its population persistence and distribution.