Bedouin Settlements Research Articles

The spatial pattern of Bedouin Sedentarization in Israel

The bedouin in Israel form a small group (13%) within the state's Arab minority, and they completed their transition stage towards settled habits in the middle of the present century with the establishment of a relatively high number of villages and hamlets. It is the object of this paper to examine and define the nature of these patterns of rural settlements, which emerged in the two distinctive areas of Galilee and the Negev. The discussion in this paper is confined to the period of the state of Israel (1948–83), when changes in both the processes and the patterns of bedouin sedentarization took place under entirely new political conditions. After the establishment of the Jewish State of Israel in 1948, both Galilee and Negev bedouin sedentarization was completed within a period of a single decade (1950–60). However, the sedentarization pattern has further evolved during the past two decades and is likely to continue to do so until the end of the present century. In the Israeli period, the pattern of bedouin sedentarization has developed in two distinct directions. First, the bedouin themselves have built permanent structures for residential purposes, a process usually referred to as ‘spontaneous bedouin settlement’. Secondly, the state authorities have planned and established settlements. In this ‘planned bedouin settlement’, the state has been dominant in shaping the pattern. It is important to note that most bedouin settlement in Israel belong in the first category where the whole tribe or individual groups were the initiators of their settlements. This paper which was written by an author who belongs to the bedouin community, is based mostly upon fresh evidence from field research data, and is the first attempt to indicate the importance of the role of the state in shaping the settlement pattern. It is hoped to contribute to the study of nomadism as well as to the study of the Arabs in Israel.

Bedouin settlement policy in Israel, 1964–1982: Another perspective

The Bedouin settlements in Israel are divided into two major groups: spontaneous settlements and planned settlements. The last group is further divided into formally planned and legalized spontaneous settlements. This last type of settlement is of special interest because spontaneous settlements have acquired legal status as a result of political pressure from the Bedouin. Bedouin resistance to the planned settlement policy of the government was very successful in the Galilee, where a total of 11 spontaneous settlements were legalized. Altogether, there are now four totally planned Bedouin settlements in the Negev and six in the Galilee, and 11 spontaneous settlements which were legalized in recent years. Two-thirds of the Bedouin population of Israel currently reside in legal recognized settlements.

Planned Bedouin settlement in Israel— a critique

Planned Bedouin settlement in Israel— a critique

Planned bedouin settlement in Israel: the reply

There has been a recent proliferation of national land-use policies that emphasize protecting open space and ecosystem integrity. However, countries grappling with internal political conflict, or that are engaged in military conflicts with neighboring countries, have priorities that focus on control of land in areas where state sovereignty is perceived to be threatened. These two concerns, political-demographic control and environmental protection, create very different paradigms for how to think about open space policy. The objective of this paper is to consider the impact of competing paradigms in land-use policy formulation and implementation—one that encourages sprawl and the other that encourages compact development and the preservation of open space. We use Israel as a case study where both political demography and environmental land-use paradigms are currently influencing policy and planning. We explore the historical evolution of both land-use paradigms and consider how they are currently competing in the formulation and execution of land-use policy decisions. We consider how these distinct priorities are playing out in current discourse and policy implementation, and characterize the past, current and prospective future physical outcomes of policies on the landscape. Our goal is to alert policy makers and land-use scholars of the subtle and contradictory influence of political-demographic land-use priorities with regard to their potential impact on the successful implementation of environmental policies. The Israeli case study is indicative of a diversity of countries that have a history of political-demographic land-use policies, but have also begun to adopt environmentally motivated policies.

Ex post evaluation of bedouin settlement projects in Jordan: A case study of wadi arja

This paper describes the attitudes and expectations of the Bedouin towards sedentarisation, with a brief summary of the Jordanian Government's reasoning for its Bedouin settlement policy. The author explores an integrated model for assessing quantifiable economic as well as non-quantifiable social and distributional effects of settlement project investments. This model is based on the use of conventional cost-benefit analysis techniques for quantitative and/or purely economic results of project investment only, while applying a ‘Project Impact Matrix’ for measuring the degree of target achievement in the political and socio-economic field. The issues are demonstrated by ex post evaluation experiences of the Irrigation and Bedouin Settlement Project at Wadi Arja in Jordan. It is hoped that the methodological tools for project evaluation developed in this paper might be a basis to work from and a step forward in social impact assessment research.

The development of the ‘planned bedouin settlement’ in Israel 1964–1982: evaluation and characteristics

Tribal traditions are facing a severe crisis in modern society. The bedouin in Israel form a small group (13%) within the state's Arab minority, and they completed their transition stage towards settled habits in the middle of the present century with the establishment of a relatively high number of villages and hamlets. For a variety of reasons such a high number of settlements is considered ‘undesirable’ by the state. It is the object of this paper to examine the state planning of bedouin settlement as a part of the policy of concentrating bedouin groups. It also sheds light on tribal reaction towards this policy.

The Bedouin of the land of Israel — Settlement and changes

Bedouin sedentarization in the Land of Israel during the present century is only part of a far wider settlement phenomenon, but there is a sharp contrast between the two. The Bedouin of the Land of Israel can be considered unique since they underwent drastic transitions in a country whose culture, political regime and economic structure are predominantly Western in nature. Even though they are to be found in many parts of Israel and at times were subject to different political regimes, the Bedouin have remained an extremely individual group. Changes in the life style of the Bedouin began towards the end of the Ottoman era. They continued to live in tents, but increasingly engaged in dry farming and built warehouses for storing grain. Several of the tribes could thus be regarded as “semi-nomadic”. The circumstances of Bedouin sedentarization in the Land of Israel are varied, though inter-related — the basic primary condition was the presence of a strong central government capable of maintaining public security in all areas coming under its jurisdiction. As a result several traditional sources of income such as robbery and demanding “protection fees” were abandoned and the “newly acquired” labour force sought alternative employment. Similarly the division of the Ottoman Empire, the establishment of new and recognized borders throughout the Middle East and the introduction of motor vehicles played an important role in abolishing these age-old sources of income. The British Government and the Jewish immigration were responsible for the development of the country from 1920 onwards. This resulted in two changes: (1) agriculture took over land that had been used for grazing; (2) the relative demographic and political powers of the Bedouin were weakened. The main factors influencing Bedouin sedentarization in the Land of Israel were the following. (1) The new conditions provided work as hired labourers, which compensated the Bedouin for the loss of traditional sources of income, and enabled the increasing population to sustain itself. (2) Greater public security made settlement possible and enabled some to develop irrigated agriculture. (3) Demand for hired labourers caused immigration to the towns in Israel, to the West Bank, East Jordan, and to the oil countries. Drought in some areas also influenced the immigration. There were two additional factors. (1) Since permanent settlers became the major power in the Land, their cultural influence on the Bedouin, who were now dependent upon them, became stronger. (2) The establishment of permanent schools became feasible and the Bedouin allowed their sons to receive a formal education and forgo herding flocks, which necessitated sedentarization. The characteristics of the “Bedouin rural settlements” are the following. They are usually unplanned, lack infrastructure and are generally widely dispersed. It is difficult to locate a settlement-centre and services are virtually non-existent. In several areas a continuum of Bedouin settlements can be distinguished which constitutes a settlement-complex. However no interaction as regards economies, services or institutions can be discerned within the complex. The residential pattern of the village is concurrent with the subdivisions of groups of families, the subunits of the tribes. Several Bedouin settlements in Israel are being replanned in compliance with Bedouin requests and clear signs of modernization are becoming evident. During the sixties, the Israeli government started building planned settlements for the Bedouin which they willingly accepted. By the eighties or nineties, it is expected that the majority of Bedouin in Israel will live in planned settlements and most of the remainder will take advantage of the replanned settlements and accomodations in towns. Bedouin settlements in Judea and Samaria (the West Bank) will be modernized and it is probable that some will migrate to the local cities and neighboring countries. The role of the authorities in influencing Bedouin settlements and sedentarization processes will no doubt intensify in the near future. All this leads us to the conclusion that in the Land of Israel we are now seeing the end of nomadism and semi-nomadism.

Book Reviews

Book Reviewed in this article: Kingston, Jamaica: Urban Development and Social Change, 1692–1962. Colin G. Clarke. The Yanoama Indians, A Cultural Geography. William A. Smole. Environmental Planning: Perception and Behavior. Thomas F. Saarinen. Australian Space, Australian Time: Geographical Perspectives in Australia, 1788–1914. J. M. Powell and M. Williams (Eds.). Folk Housing in Middle Virginia: A Structural Analysis of Historic Artifacts. Henry Glassie. Inter-regional Migration in Tropical Africa. I. Masser and W. T. S. Gould. Turkey: Geographic and Social Perspectives. Peter Benedict, Erol Tiimertekin, and Fatma Mansur (Eds.). Black Migration: Movement North, 1900–1920. Florette Henri. Spatial Patterns of Bedouin Settlement in al-Qasim Region Saudi Arabia. Ahmed A. Shamekh. Images of the Plains: The Role of Human Nature in Settlement. Brian W. Blouet and Merlin P. Lawson (Eds.) Atmospheric Quality and Climatic Change. R. J. Kopec (Ed.). Africa, The Devastated Continent?Antoon de Vos. The Diffusion of the Reformation in Southwestern Germany, 1518–1534. Manfred Hannemann. The Evolution of a Tidewater Settlement System: All Hallow's Parish, Maryland, 1650–1783. Carville V. Earle. Fields of the Tzotzil: The Ecological Bases of Tradition in Highland Chiapas. George A. Collier.