Bedform Development Research Articles

Efficiency and uncertainties in micro- and mesoscale habitat modelling in large rivers

Habitat modelling has become an increasingly important tool in river sciences to evaluate impacts on running waters and to predict the effects of river restoration in the context of the European Water Framework Directive which aims to reach a good ecological status by 2015. In a scaling framework like the River Scaling Concept, micro- and mesoscale habitat modelling hierarchically integrate point-/local-scale abiotic processes like grain sorting, initiation of sediment transport, bedform development and braiding with biological processes like spawning, daily and seasonal movements, feeding and shifting to refuge habitats. The paper, along with application results, shows that micro- and mesoscale habitat models are complementary especially for large river systems. Overall possibilities, restrictions and future development are discussed. Both rely on dynamic abiotic modelling as a basis as well as on biological data. In future, especially for large rivers, habitat modelling should be addressed on both scales (micro-/meso-) with the main focus on site-specific efficiencies (e.g. minimum efforts) and uncertainties (e.g. transferring suitability indices).

Fluvial features on Titan: Insights from morphology and modeling

Fluvial features on Titan have been identified in synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data taken during spacecraft flybys by the Cassini Titan Radar Mapper (RADAR) and in Descent Imager/Spectral Radiometer (DISR) images taken during descent of the Huygens probe to the surface. Interpretations using terrestrial analogs and process mechanics extend our perspective on fluvial geomorphology to another world and offer insight into their formative processes. At the landscape scale, the varied morphologies of Titan’s fluvial networks imply a variety of mechanical controls, including structural influence, on channelized flows. At the reach scale, the various morphologies of individual fluvial features, implying a broad range of fluvial processes, suggest that (paleo-)flows did not occupy the entire observed width of the features. DISR images provide a spatially limited view of uplands dissected by valley networks, also likely formed by overland flows, which are not visible in lower-resolution SAR data. This high-resolution snapshot suggests that some fluvial features observed in SAR data may be river valleys rather than channels, and that uplands elsewhere on Titan may also have fine-scale fluvial dissection that is not resolved in SAR data. Radar-bright terrain with crenulated bright and dark bands is hypothesized here to be a signature of fine-scale fluvial dissection. Fluvial deposition is inferred to occur in braided channels, in (paleo)lake basins, and on SAR-dark plains, and DISR images at the surface indicate the presence of fluvial sediment. Flow sufficient to move sediment is inferred from observations and modeling of atmospheric processes, which support the inference from surface morphology of precipitation-fed fluvial processes. With material properties appropriate for Titan, terrestrial hydraulic equations are applicable to flow on Titan for fully turbulent flow and rough boundaries. For low-Reynolds-number flow over smooth boundaries, however, knowledge of fluid kinematic viscosity is necessary. Sediment movement and bed form development should occur at lower bed shear stress on Titan than on Earth. Scaling bedrock erosion, however, is hampered by uncertainties regarding Titan material properties. Overall, observations of Titan point to a world pervasively influenced by fluvial processes, for which appropriate terrestrial analogs and formulations may provide insight.

Bedform development in mixed sand–mud: The contrasting role of cohesive forces in flow and bed

The majority of subaqueous sediment on Earth consists of mixtures of cohesive clay and cohesionless sand and silt, but the role of cohesion on the development and stability of sedimentary bedforms is poorly understood. The results of new laboratory flume experiments on bedform development in cohesive, mixed sand–mud beds are compared with the results of previous experiments in which cohesive forces in high concentration clay flows dominated bedform development. Even though both series of mixed sand–mud experiments were conducted at similar flow velocities, the textural and structural properties of the bedforms were sufficiently different to permit the designation of key criteria for identifying bedform generation under cohesive flows against bedform generation on cohesive substrates. These criteria are essential for improving bedform size predictions in sediment transport modelling in modern sedimentary environments and for the reconstruction of depositional processes in the geological record. The current ripples developing on the cohesive, mixed sand–mud beds, with bed mud fractions of up to 18%, were significantly smaller than equivalent bedforms in noncohesive sand. Moreover, the bedform height showed a stronger inversely proportional relationship with initial bed mud fraction than the bedform wavelength. This is in contrast with the bedforms developing under the cohesive clay flows, which tend to increase in size with increasing suspended clay concentration until the flow turbulence is fully suppressed. Selective removal of clay from the mixed beds, i.e., clay winnowing, was found to be an important process, with 82–100% clay entrained into suspension after 2h of bedform development. This winnowing process led to the development of a sand-rich armouring layer. This armouring layer is inferred to have protected the underlying mixed sand–mud from prolonged erosion, and in conjunction with strong cohesive forces in the bed may have caused the smaller size of the bedforms. Winnowing was less efficient for the bedforms developing under the cohesive clay flows, where bedforms consisting of muddy sand were more characteristic. The winnowed sand was also found to heal irregularly scoured topography, thus reestablishing classic quasitriangular bedform shapes. In cohesive flows, the bedforms had more variable shapes, and the healing process was confined to lower transitional plug flows in which strong turbulence is only present close to the sediment bed. Furthermore, the bedforms on the cohesive beds tended to form angle-of-repose cross lamination, whereas low angle cross lamination was more common in bedforms under cohesive flows. In general terms, erosional bedforms prevail when cohesive forces in the bed dominate bedform dynamics, whereas depositional bedforms prevail when cohesive forces in the flow dominate bedform dynamics. Empirical relationships between the proportion of cohesive mud in the mixed sand–mud bed and the development rate and size of the bedforms are defined for future use in field and laboratory studies.

Coupled dynamics of the co‐evolution of gravel bed topography, flow turbulence and sediment transport in an experimental channel

A series of flume experiments were conducted in a large experimental channel at the St. Anthony Falls Laboratory to understand the coupled dynamics of flow and bed forms above the sediment‐water interface. Simultaneous high resolution measurements of velocity fluctuations, bed elevations and sediment flux at the downstream end of the channel, were made for a range of discharges. The probability density functions (pdfs) of bed elevation increments and instantaneous Reynolds stress reveal a power law tail behavior and a wavelet cross‐correlation analysis depicts a strong dependence of these series across a range of scales, indicating a feedback between bed form dynamics and near‐bed turbulence. These results complement our previous findings in which the signature of bed form evolution on the near‐bed velocity fluctuations was confirmed via the presence of a spectral gap and two distinct power law scaling regimes in the spectral density of velocity fluctuations. We report herein a strong asymmetry in the probability distribution of bed elevation increments and instantaneous Reynolds stresses, the latter being further analyzed and interpreted via a quadrant analysis of velocity fluctuations in the longitudinal and vertical directions. We also report the presence of intermittency (multifractality) in bed elevation increments and interpret it, in view of the asymmetric nature of the pdfs, as the result of scale coupling. In other words, the geometric asymmetry at the bed form scale gets transferred down to a probabilistic asymmetry at all smaller scales indicating a local anisotropy in the energy transfer. Finally, we propose a predictive relationship between bed form averaged sediment transport rates and bed form averaged instantaneous Reynolds stress and validate it using our experimental data.

Upstream-facing convex surfaces: Bedrock bedforms produced by fluvial bedload abrasion

Bedrock bedforms are a common sight in many bedrock river channels but few process-form linkages have been established for the myriad of forms recognised in the literature. Direct observations from bedrock channels on rates and distributions of erosion involved in bedrock bedform development are rare because of difficulties in making observations in these high-energy environments. Upstream-facing convex surfaces (UFCS) are common in bedrock rivers and are partnered with downstream-facing surfaces. We have made observations of bedrock morphology, aspect, and surface texture of UFCSs in bedrock river channels exposed at low river stage in Taiwan. A distinct contrast in morphology and surface texture exists between upstream- and downstream-facing surfaces. On a millimetre scale of observation, UFCSs have a three-dimensional, brittle fracture-dominated, granular surface texture but on a decimetre to metre scale have an overall convex form. Downstream-facing surfaces, in contrast, have millimetre to micrometre scale rugosity characterised by smooth polished surfaces that on a centimetre to metre scale are concave or undulating with intricately sculpted features. A curvilinear topographic feature, or crest line, marks the change in slope, aspect, and surface textures between upstream- and downstream-facing surfaces and is orientated approximately perpendicular to the reach azimuth and therefore mean flow direction. We used a system of removable datums and terrestrial laser scanning to monitor the three-dimensional erosion of nine bedforms at sites in the Liwu River, Taiwan, over a period of one year (2007–2008). All sites had an asymmetric distribution of erosion with higher rates of erosion on upstream-facing surfaces and minor to undetectable erosion on downstream-facing surfaces, with local complexity. The crest line mapped the boundary between relatively high and low erosion rates between the upstream-facing and downstream-facing surfaces respectively. Observations from unscaled flume experiments show that bedload particles transit a flow obstacle by travelling up the upstream-facing surface, where erosion is focused, and hop over the top of the obstacle. Our field and flume observations indicate that UFCSs observed in natural rivers are produced by bedload abrasion, which by being decoupled from the flow can only impact the stoss surface to any significant extent. Micropitting found on polished downstream-facing surfaces indicate that they are dominantly formed by suspended load abrasion. The aspect of a surface, its position in a channel cross section, the topography of the channel upstream, and the local topography of the bedrock bedform are significant controls on the location and magnitude of abrasion by bedload and resultant surface textures because of their effect on steering a bedload particle stream. The high erosion rates observed indicate that abrasion by bedload is the controlling process in the formation of this variety of bedrock bedform and possibly the channel at large in this setting.

Experimental study of pore water pressure and bed profile change under regular breaking waves

There lies a close relationship between the seabed destruction and the distribution of pore water pressure under the action of breaking wave. The experiments were carried out in a wave flume with a 1:30 sloping sandy seabed to study regular breaking wave induced pore water pressure. A wide range of measurements from the regular wave runs were reported, including time series of wave heights, pore pressures. The video records were analysed to measure the time development of the seabed form and the characteristics of the orbital motion of the sand in the wave breaking region. The pore water pressure in the breaker zone showed the time variation depending on the wave phases including wave breaking and bore propagation. The time-averaged pore water pressure was higher near the seabed surface. The peak values of pore water pressure increase significantly at the breaking point. The direction of pore water pressure difference forces in the breaker zone is of fundamental importance for a correct description of the sediment dynamics. The upwardsdirected pressure differences may increase sand transport by reducing the effective weight of the sediment, thereby increasing the bed form evolution. The seabed configuration changed greatly at the wave breaking zone and a sand bar was generated remarkably. The amplitude of the pore water pressure changed with the seabed surface. The results are to improve the understanding of sand transport mechanisms and seabed responses due to breaking regular waves over a sloping sandy bed.

Quantification of uncertainty in design water levels due to uncertain bed form roughness in the Dutch river Waal

AbstractHydrodynamic river models are applied to design and evaluate measures for purposes such as safety against flooding. The modelling of river processes involves numerous uncertainties, resulting in uncertain model results. Knowledge of the type and magnitude of these uncertainties is crucial for a meaningful interpretation of the model results. Uncertainty in the hydraulic roughness due to bed forms is one of the main contributors to the uncertainty in the modelled water levels. The aim of this study was to quantify the uncertainty in the bed form roughness under design conditions and quantify the effect on the design water levels in the Dutch river Waal. Five roughness models that predict bed form roughness based on measured bed form and flow characteristics were extrapolated to design conditions. The results show that the 95% confidence interval of the predicted Nikuradse roughness values under design conditions ranges from 0.32 to 1.03 m. This uncertainty was propagated through the two‐dimensional hydrodynamic model, WAQUA, by means of a Monte Carlo simulation for an idealized schematization of the Dutch river Waal. The uncertain bed form roughness results in an uncertainty in the design water levels, with a 95% confidence interval of 0.53 m, which is significant for Dutch river management practice. The uncertainty in the bed form roughness was mainly caused by a lack of knowledge about the physical process of bed form evolution that causes roughness. An improved estimation of bed form roughness can significantly reduce the uncertainty in the design water levels. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Effect of hydraulic parameters on sediment transport capacity in overland flow over erodible beds

Abstract. Sediment transport is an important component of the soil erosion process, which depends on several hydraulic parameters like unit discharge, mean flow velocity, and slope gradient. In most of the previous studies, the impact of these hydraulic parameters on transport capacity was studied for non-erodible bed conditions. Hence, this study aimed to examine the influence of unit discharge, mean flow velocity and slope gradient on sediment transport capacity for erodible beds and also to investigate the relationship between transport capacity and composite force predictors, i.e. shear stress, stream power, unit stream power and effective stream power. In order to accomplish the objectives, experiments were carried out in a 3.0 m long and 0.5 m wide flume using four well sorted sands (0.230, 0.536, 0.719, 1.022 mm). Unit discharges ranging from 0.07 to 2.07 × 10−3 m2 s−1 were simulated inside the flume at four slopes (5.2, 8.7, 13.2 and 17.6%) to analyze their impact on sediment transport rate. The sediment transport rate measured at the bottom end of the flume by taking water and sediment samples was considered equal to sediment transport capacity, because the selected flume length of 3.0 m was found sufficient to reach the transport capacity. The experimental result reveals that the slope gradient has a stronger impact on transport capacity than unit discharge and mean flow velocity due to the fact that the tangential component of gravity force increases with slope gradient. Our results show that unit stream power is an optimal composite force predictor for estimating transport capacity. Stream power and effective stream power can also be successfully related to the transport capacity, however the relations are strongly dependent on grain size. Shear stress showed poor performance, because part of shear stress is dissipated by bed irregularities, bed form evolution and sediment detachment. An empirical transport capacity equation was derived, which illustrates that transport capacity can be predicted from median grain size, total discharge and slope gradient.

湖沼の水辺植物の定着に及ぼす波浪の影響

The effect of wave action on the establishment of Zostera japonica, a brackish submerged macrophyte growing mainly in coastal areas, is discussed. The wave forces acting on Z. japonica were measured by using a small two components load cell installed under the bed of wave flume. The wave forces were too small to pull out Z. japonica shoot from bottom sediment. Sediment transport and bed form development under waves were also observed, and Z. japonica shoot was pulled out from the sand bed of flume when large ripples appeared on the sand bed in wave flume.

Multiscale statistical characterization of migrating bed forms in gravel and sand bed rivers

Migrating bed forms strongly influence hydraulics, transport, and habitat in river environments. Their dynamics are exceedingly complex, making it difficult to predict their geometry and their interaction with sediment transport. Acoustic instrumentation now permits high‐resolution observations of bed elevation as well as flow velocity. We present a space‐time characterization of bed elevation series in laboratory experiments of sand and gravel transport in a large 84 m long, 2.75 m wide flume. We use a simple filtering and thresholding methodology to estimate bed form heights and report that the shape of their probability density function (pdf) remains invariant to discharge for both gravel and sand and has a positive tail slightly thicker than Gaussian. Using a wavelet decomposition, we quantify the presence of a rich multiscale statistical structure and estimate the scale‐dependent celerity of migrating bed forms, showing the faster movement of smaller bed forms relative to the larger ones. The nonlinear dynamics of gravel and sand bed forms is also examined, and the predictability time, i.e., the interval over which one can typically forecast the system, is estimated. Our results demonstrate that flow rate as well as bed sediment composition exert a significant influence on the multiscale dynamics and degree of nonlinearity and complexity of bed form evolution.

Initial stages of erosion and bed form development in a turbulent flow around a cylindrical pier

[1] Bed load transport and erosion in fine sediment beds are mainly driven by the dynamics of the near-bed turbulent flow. In situations when the shear stress is not sufficiently high to produce significant transport, the presence of an obstacle can initiate erosion and trigger the development of bed forms, which are produced by the emergence of the turbulent horseshoe vortex (THV) system. We develop a numerical model to investigate the initial stages of erosion and the development of ripples produced by the THV system in the vicinity of a surface-mounted cylindrical pier. The flow is simulated using the detached eddy simulation approach, which has been shown to accurately resolve most of the turbulent stresses produced by the THV. To compute the erosion, the Exner equation is coupled to a new bed load transport model that directly incorporates the effect of the instantaneous flow field on sediment transport. The morphodynamic model is integrated simultaneously with the flow equations using an arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian method for moving boundaries. Even though the time rate of scour is slower compared to the observations, the computed results exhibit essentially all the dynamics of erosion, including the emergence of ripples reported in the experiments of Dargahi (1990). The bed forms show similar velocities as reported in the experiments and are shown to be statistically similar to ripples measured in laboratory experiments and in nature. To our knowledge, this is the first three-dimensional simulation to capture the ripple dynamics that evolve naturally from the nonlinear interactions between the flow and the bed.

Depositional processes, bedform development and hybrid bed formation in rapidly decelerated cohesive (mud–sand) sediment flows

AbstractFlows with high suspended sediment concentrations are common in many sedimentary environments, and their flow properties may show a transitional behaviour between fully turbulent and quasi‐laminar plug flows. The characteristics of these transitional flows are known to be a function of both clay concentration and type, as well as the applied fluid stress, but so far the interaction of these transitional flows with a loose sediment bed has received little attention. Information on this type of interaction is essential for the recognition and prediction of sedimentary structures formed by cohesive transitional flows in, for example, fluvial, estuarine and deep‐marine deposits. This paper investigates the behaviour of rapidly decelerated to steady flows that contain a mixture of sand, silt and clay, and explores the effect of different clay (kaolin) concentrations on the dynamics of flow over a mobile bed, and the bedforms and stratification produced. Experiments were conducted in a recirculating slurry flume capable of transporting high clay concentrations. Ultrasonic Doppler velocity profiling was used to measure the flow velocity within these concentrated suspension flows. The development of current ripples under decelerated flows of differing kaolin concentration was documented and evolution of their height, wavelength and migration rate quantified. This work confirms past work over smooth, fixed beds which showed that, as clay concentration rises, a distinct sequence of flow types is generated: turbulent flow, turbulence‐enhanced transitional flow, lower transitional plug flow, upper transitional plug flow and a quasi‐laminar plug flow. Each of these flow types produces an initial flat bed upon rapid flow deceleration, followed by reworking of these deposits through the development of current ripples during the subsequent steady flow in turbulent flow, turbulence‐enhanced transitional flow and lower transitional plug flow. The initial flat beds are structureless, but have diagnostic textural properties, caused by differential settling of sand, silt and cohesive mud, which forms characteristic bipartite beds that initially consist of sand overlain by silt or clay. As clay concentration in the formative flow increases, ripples first increase in mean height and wavelength under turbulence‐enhanced transitional flow and lower transitional plug‐flow regimes, which is attributed to the additional turbulence generated under these flows that subsequently causes greater lee side erosion. As clay concentration increases further from a lower transitional plug flow, ripples cease to exist under the upper transitional plug flow and quasi‐laminar plug flow conditions investigated herein. This disappearance of ripples appears due to both turbulence suppression at higher clay concentrations, as well as the increasing shear strength of the bed sediment that becomes more difficult to erode as clay concentration increases. The stratification within the ripples formed after rapid deceleration of the transitional flows reflects the availability of sediment from the bipartite bed. The exact nature of the ripple cross‐stratification in these flows is a direct function of the duration of the formative flow and the texture of the initial flat bed, and ripples do not form in cohesive flows with a Reynolds number smaller than ca 12 000. Examples are given of how the unique properties of the current ripples and plane beds, developing below decelerated transitional flows, could aid in the interpretation of depositional processes in modern and ancient sediments. This interpretation includes a new model for hybrid beds that explains their formation in terms of a combination of vertical grain‐size segregation and longitudinal flow transformation.

Effects of Instrumented Bottom Tripods on Process Measurements

Abstract The measurement and assessment of ocean bottom processes are important sources of information for understanding bedform evolution and sediment entrainment and for improving numerical models. Instrumented tripods have been used to investigate bottom boundary layer and sediment dynamics processes for several decades. In this paper, the effects of instrumented tripods on hydrodynamics and on the sea bed are investigated via numerical modeling and field data collected under moderate to strong tidal currents and mild surface waves. Under high currents, streamlines are modified and structure-induced vertical velocities are produced. To minimize this effect, a rotation of the three-dimensional current measurement under the frame is recommended. Acceleration of the flow under the frame is also significant (on the order of 10%–20%), which leads to an increase in bottom stress and can produce a large scour pit in energetic currents. Wave–structure interactions mainly increase turbulence near the frame. No significant wave effect has been observed near the bed, and scouring thus mostly relates to tidal currents.

Recognition of wave-dominated, tide-influenced shoreline systems in the rock record: Variations from a microtidal shoreline model

Existing wave-dominated facies models are based on microtidal coastlines and do not adequately address wave-dominated environments influenced by significant tidal ranges. Observations from modern environments show that such systems are abundant along tide-influenced shorelines facing wide shelves and large embayments, such as much of the northern Australia coast; yet equivalent deposits have been rarely recognized from the ancient record. Geomorphological literature shows that tidal influence on wave-dominated shorelines has the effect of shifting the shoaling, breaking, and swash wave zones up and down the beach profile; when the tidal range is appreciable, sedimentation is affected significantly. Many macrotidal, wave-dominated systems (tidal range >4m), for example, are non-barred and are characterized by poor development of dune-scale bedforms in the subtidal zone and along the beach profile. Other systems do develop cross stratification, but this occurs in the intertidal zone rather than the subtidal zone as is implied in existing wave-dominated facies models. The association of many wave-dominated, tide-influenced environments with shallow shelves also suggests that major storms may be capable of reworking sediment significant distances from the shoreline.We present an ancient example of a wave-dominated, tide-influenced, fluvial-affected system (Wtf) from the Campanian Bearpaw to Horseshoe Canyon Formation transition near Drumheller, Alberta, Canada, which has been described in closely spaced outcrop exposures and core. Wave domination in the coarsening-upward interval is unambiguous and is represented by abundance of micro-hummocky cross stratification and other storm beds in the mudstone-dominated portions, a well-defined swaley cross stratified sandstone interval, and an up to four meter thick, horizontal planar stratified interval interpreted to have been formed by swash waves. Tide influence is suggested by common double carbonaceous and mud drapes and well-developed tidal rhythmites. The anomalously thick horizontal planar interval described above is interpreted also to be related to tides that shift the zones of wave reworking up and down the beach profile. Fluvial influence is suggested by the presence of fluid mud beds in the lower portion of the succession and the abundance of carbonaceous debris through the entire interval. The boundary between the mudstone-dominated and sandstone-dominated portions of the succession is sharp and scoured, and is interpreted as the boundary between a subaqueous delta front or mudstone belt below and a wave-dominated, tide-influenced shoreline above. Observations in this study and a survey of geomorphologic literature lead to a new proposed model of facies distributions for a wave-dominated, tide-influenced system. Additional ancient case studies are needed in order to generate robust facies models capable of dealing with the full variability of such systems.

Fully coupled approach to modeling shallow water flow, sediment transport, and bed evolution in rivers

Our ability to predict complex environmental fluid flow and transport hinges on accurate and efficient simulations of multiple physical phenomenon operating simultaneously over a wide range of spatial and temporal scales, including overbank floods, coastal storm surge events, drying and wetting bed conditions, and simultaneous bed form evolution. This research implements a fully coupled strategy for solving shallow water hydrodynamics, sediment transport, and morphological bed evolution in rivers and floodplains (PIHM_Hydro) and applies the model to field and laboratory experiments that cover a wide range of spatial and temporal scales. The model uses a standard upwind finite volume method and Roe's approximate Riemann solver for unstructured grids. A multidimensional linear reconstruction and slope limiter are implemented, achieving second‐order spatial accuracy. Model efficiency and stability are treated using an explicit‐implicit method for temporal discretization with operator splitting. Laboratory‐and field‐scale experiments were compiled where coupled processes across a range of scales were observed and where higher‐order spatial and temporal accuracy might be needed for accurate and efficient solutions. These experiments demonstrate the ability of the fully coupled strategy in capturing dynamics of field‐scale flood waves and small‐scale drying‐wetting processes.

Small-scale sediment transport patterns and bedform morphodynamics: new insights from high-resolution multibeam bathymetry

New multibeam echosounder and processing technologies yield sub-meter-scale bathymetric resolution, revealing striking details of bedform morphology that are shaped by complex boundary-layer flow dynamics at a range of spatial and temporal scales. An inertially aided post processed kinematic (IAPPK) technique generates a smoothed best estimate trajectory (SBET) solution to tie the vessel motion-related effects of each sounding directly to the ellipsoid, significantly reducing artifacts commonly found in multibeam data, increasing point density, and sharpening seafloor features. The new technique was applied to a large bedform field in 20–30 m water depths in central San Francisco Bay, California (USA), revealing bedforms that suggest boundary-layer flow deflection by the crests where 12-m-wavelength, 0.2-m-amplitude bedforms are superimposed on 60-m-wavelength, 1-m-amplitude bedforms, with crests that often were strongly oblique (approaching 90°) to the larger features on the lee side, and near-parallel on the stoss side. During one survey in April 2008, superimposed bedform crests were continuous between the crests of the larger features, indicating that flow detachment in the lee of the larger bedforms is not always a dominant process. Assessment of bedform crest peakedness, asymmetry, and small-scale bedform evolution between surveys indicates the impact of different flow regimes on the entire bedform field. This paper presents unique fine-scale imagery of compound and superimposed bedforms, which is used to (1) assess the physical forcing and evolution of a bedform field in San Francisco Bay, and (2) in conjunction with numerical modeling, gain a better fundamental understanding of boundary-layer flow dynamics that result in the observed superimposed bedform orientation.

Computer simulations of self-organized megaripples in the nearshore

[1] Megaripples are bed forms with heights of 20–50 cm and lengths of 1–10 m that are common in the surf zone of natural beaches. They affect sediment transport, flow energy dissipation, and larger-scale hydro- and morphodynamics. They are thought to be dynamically similar to bed forms in deserts, rivers, and deeper marine environments. Here a self-organization model (similar to models for subaerial bed forms) is used to simulate the formation and development of megaripples in the surf zone. Sediment flux is determined from combined wave and current flows using stream power and bed shear stress formulations as well as a third formulation for transport based on simple rules, which represent sheet flow. Random bed irregularities, either imposed or resulting from small variations in transport representing turbulence, are necessary seeds for bed form development. Feedback between the bed and the flow, in the form of a shadow zone downstream of a bed form and increasing flow acceleration with elevation over the crests of bed forms, alter the transport such that organized bed forms emerge. Modeled bed form morphology (including cross-sectional shape and plan view) and dynamics (including growth and migration) are similar to natural megaripples. The model can be used to extend the field observations of Clarke and Werner (2004), which suggest that, if conditions remain the same, megaripples will continue to grow. Contrary to many bed form models, this model supports the idea that bed form spacing grows continually.

Bed load transport in turbulent flow at the grain scale: Experiments and modeling

We report an experimental investigation of the motion of bed load particles under steady and spatially uniform turbulent flow above a flat sediment bed of uniform grain size. Using a high‐speed video imaging system, we recorded the trajectories of the moving particles and measured their velocity and the length and duration of their flights, as well as the surface density of the moving particles. Our observations show that entrained particles exhibit intermittent motion composed of the succession of periods of “flight” and periods of rest. During one flight, a particle may go through phases of reptation, during which it moves in nearly persistent contact with the rough bed, and phases of saltation, during which it travels sufficiently high above the bed to reach high velocities. The distributions of longitudinal and transverse particle velocities obey a decreasing exponential and a Gaussian law, respectively. Interestingly, these observations are similar to those previously reported for viscous flows. The experimental results presented here support the erosion‐deposition model of Charru (2006) and allow the calibration of the involved coefficients. In particular, noting τ*, the Shields number, and τ*c, the threshold Shields number, we find that (1) the surface density of moving particles increases linearly with τ* − τ*c; (2) the average particle velocity increases linearly with τ*1/2 − τ*c1/2, with a finite nonzero value at the threshold; (3) the flight duration scales with a characteristic settling time with no significant dependence on either τ* or the settling Reynolds number; and (4) the flight length increases linearly with τ*1/2 − τ*c1/2. The results presented in this paper should provide a valuable physical framework to describe bed form development in turbulent flows.

Experimental study on transient and steady‐state dynamics of bedforms in supply limited configuration

AbstractThe purpose of the present study is to investigate experimentally the development of bedforms in a configuration where the sediment supply is limited. The experimental setup is a rectangular closed duct combining an innovative system to control the rate of sediment supply Qin , and a digitizing system to measure in real time the 3D bedform topography. We carried out different sets of experiments with two sediment sizes (100 µm and 500 µm) varying both the sediment supply and the water flow rate to obtain a total of 46 different configurations. After a transient phase, steady sub‐centimeter bedforms of various shapes have been observed: barchans dunes, straight transverse dune, linguoid transverse dunes and bedload sheets. Height, spacing, migration speed, and mean bed elevation of the equilibrium bedforms were measured. For a given flow rate, two regimes were identified with fine sediment: (i) a monotonic increasing regime where the equilibrium bedform height and velocity increase with the sediment supply rate Qin and (ii) an invariant regime for which both parameters are almost independent of Qin. For coarse sediment, only the first regime is observed. We interpret the saturation of height and velocity for fine sediment bedforms as the transition from a supply‐limited regime to a transport‐limited regime in which the bedload flux has reached its maximum value under the prevailing flow conditions. We also demonstrate that all experiments can be rescaled if the migration speed and height of the bedforms are, respectively, divided and multiplied by the cube of the shear velocity. This normalization is independent of grain size and of bedform morphology. These experimental results provide a new quantification of the factors controlling equilibrium height and migration speed of bedforms in supply‐limited conditions against which theoretical and numerical models can be tested.

Aeolian sand strip mobility and protodune development on a drying beach: examining surface moisture and surface roughness patterns measured by terrestrial laser scanning

AbstractEphemeral aeolian sand strips are commonplace on beaches. Their formation during high energy sand transport events often precedes the development of protodunes and their dynamics present interesting feedback mechanisms with surface moisture patterns. However, due to their temporary nature, little is known of their formation, mobility or the specifics of their interaction with beach surface characteristics. Similarly surface moisture has an important influence on sediment availability and transport in aeolian beach systems, yet it is difficult to quantify accurately due to its inherent variability over both short spatial and temporal scales. Whilst soil moisture probes and remote sensing imagery techniques can quantify large changes well, their resolution over mainly dry sand, close to the aeolian transport threshold is not ideal, particularly where moisture gradients close to the surface are large. In this study we employed a terrestrial laser scanner to monitor beach surface moisture variability during a three and a half hour period after a rain event and investigated relationships between bedform development, surface roughness and surface moisture. Our results demonstrate that as the beach surface dries, sand transport increases, with sediment erosion occurring at the wet/dry surface boundary, and deposition further downwind. This dynamic structure, dependent upon changing surface moisture characteristics, results in the formation of a rippled sand strip and ultimately a protodune. Our findings highlight dynamic mobility relationships and confirm the need to consider transient bedforms and surface moisture across a variety of scales when measuring aeolian transport in beach settings. The terrestrial laser scanner provides a suitable apparatus with which to accomplish this. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.