Gypaetus Research Articles

Flying free before building my nest.

I spent the first 17 years of my scientific life as a freelance naturalist, with no more academic credentials than a bachelor's degree in library and information science. It was challenging, but I found it intellectually rewarding, and I enjoyed exploring my scientific passion without facing the pressure and uncertainty typically endured by trainees pursuing academic careers. I was able to simply let my creativity develop. Then, 7 years ago, my career took a turn when I attended a conference about bearded vultures, which led me to earn my Ph.D. at the age of 38. Now, as a postdoc pursuing an academic research career, I am taking advantage of all that I learned during my years as an independent scientist. ![Figure][1] ILLUSTRATION: ROBERT NEUBECKER > “My emotional attachment to these birds of prey and to conservation never faded.” I took this unconventional path because of the poor employment prospects for biologists in Spain in the 1980s, which deterred me from studying science. But I had become fascinated by bearded vultures as a teenager, and my emotional attachment to these birds of prey and to conservation never faded. So, after finishing my bachelor's degree, I signed a 6-month contract with the regional government to monitor bearded vulture breeding sites, and my scientific career began. Not long after, the Catalan government was seeking a naturalist to do similar work. Someone told the government officials about a passionate young naturalist who spent all his time watching vultures, and they contacted me. I worked on regional projects as a self-employed naturalist, gradually getting involved in international conservation research efforts, and finally found myself as a freelance wildlife technician for the Spanish government. As my research progressed, I published because I wanted to share my findings, not because I was hoping for an advanced degree or items for my CV. I didn't have to worry about racking up papers, the reputation of the journals I published in, or where I stood on the author list. This freedom allowed me to pursue the questions I was most interested in and to develop risky projects that might take ages to yield rewards, if any. And even though the salary of my early years did not even cover the cost of gasoline to get to the remote field sites, I felt I was the luckiest man in the world to work with the species that fascinated me most. But at that conference in 2009, an influential conservation biologist approached me after my talk. He was interested in my field studies and publications, and we continued our discussion over dinner. He was surprised that I did not have a doctorate and suggested that I prepare a Ph.D. thesis under his supervision. I was astonished: He did not know me personally, although he had read the majority of my papers. I was also excited, because a doctorate would open career doors that had previously been closed to me. It would give me access to competitive research funds, which would enable me to tackle more ambitious scientific questions and conservation challenges. So, 1 year later, I enrolled as a Ph.D. student. I worked with my adviser to select 31 of my papers, submitted them as a Ph.D. thesis, and was awarded my degree. I am now a postdoctoral researcher, with hopes of establishing my own research group. I miss my earlier freedom to some extent, but the financial security of a full-time position is a real asset, especially now that I have a family, and the tools and collaborations that academia offers are extremely rewarding. At the same time, I'm glad I took an unconventional path. I believe that if I had gone straight into academia, where bibliometrics rule the lives of today's young researchers, I would have been less adventurous in my choice of projects. Blazing my own trail before returning to academia helped me on my road to becoming a successful, fulfilled scientist. [1]: pending:yes

Supplementary feeding and young extraction from the wild are not a sensible alternative to captive breeding for reintroducing bearded vultures Gypaetus barbatus

Summary Reintroduction programmes need regular assessments of their achievements and cost‐efficiency so as to adapt management strategy. Ferrer et al. argue that the reintroduction of the bearded vulture, which has so far relied upon the release of captive‐reared chicks, could instead use the extra number of young produced by supplementary feeding on poor‐quality territories in the Pyrenees. They argue that this strategy would not affect the donor population while being much cheaper than a captive breeding programme. We question this assertion based on several grounds. Ferrer et al. used incorrect data when estimating the effects of supplementary feeding on the production of young. Our reanalyses using the same data source but corrected for missing values show effect sizes of low magnitude and with substantial uncertainty, questioning any positive effect of supplementary feeding on productivity. Moreover, Ferrer et al.'s experiment actually lacks a genuine statistical control due to weak temporal stability in territory quality: we demonstrate that average productivity of territories of low‐quality during the baseline period (2001–2006) might actually have been increasing during the ‘treatment’ period (2007–2010) even without food supplementation due to a possible regression to the mean effect. Our demographic reanalysis furthermore suggests that the donor population would not be that resilient to the extraction of young, resulting in trajectories far less optimistic (53–56 pairs in a time horizon of 50 years) than the 70 pairs reported. We also suggest that the costs of a captive breeding programme are substantially lower than suggested by Ferrer et al. Synthesis and applications. The management recommendations proposed by Ferrer et al. appear unjustified. We thus urge governmental agencies to avoid making strategic political decisions and deploying conservation action on such a flawed base. We do not question here the utility of experimental approaches in reintroduction biology, but advocate independent assessment of study designs, data handling and quantitative analyses, notably when extraction of individuals from endangered populations is proposed as the best alternative option.

Ochre Bathing of the Bearded Vulture: A Bio-Mimetic Model for Early Humans towards Smell Prevention and Health.

Simple SummaryThe once widespread bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) has the habit of bathing its polluted feathers and skin in red iron oxide-ochre-tainted water puddles. Primitive man may have tried to find out why: ochre is active in sunlight producing aggressive chemical species. They can kill viruses and bacteria and convert smelly organic substances into volatile neutral carbon dioxide gas. There is consequently a sanitary reason for the vulture’s habit of bathing in red ochre mud and this explains why prehistoric people included ochre use into their habits and rituals.Since primordial times, vultures have been competing with man for animal carcasses. One of these vultures, the once widespread bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus), has the habit of bathing its polluted feathers and skin in red iron oxide - ochre - tainted water puddles. Why? Primitive man may have tried to find out and may have discovered its advantages. Red ochre, which has accompanied human rituals and everyday life for more than 100,000 years, is not just a simple red paint for decoration or a symbol for blood. As modern experiments demonstrate, it is active in sunlight producing aggressive chemical species. They can kill viruses and bacteria and convert smelly organic substances into volatile neutral carbon dioxide gas. In this way, ochre can in sunlight sterilize and clean the skin to provide health and comfort and make it scentless, a definitive advantage for nomadic meat hunters. This research thus also demonstrates a sanitary reason for the vulture’s habit of bathing in red ochre mud. Prehistoric people have therefore included ochre use into their rituals, especially into those in relation to birth and death. Significant ritual impulses during evolution of man may thus have developed bio-mimetically, inspired from the habits of a vulture. It is discussed how this health strategy could be developed to a modern standard helping to fight antibiotics-resistant bacteria in hospitals.

Does habitat use and ecological niche shift over the lifespan of wild species? Patterns of the bearded vulture population in the Western Alps

AbstractWe analysed bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) occurrences collected through long‐term monitoring (from 1993 to 2010) in the Western Alps (1) to test whether ecological niches shift due to individual development and (2) to verify whether these patterns could reflect their spatial distribution. Thus, we compared the distribution patterns of three age classes (‘young’, ‘sub‐adults’ and ‘adults’) through the K‐select analysis. We then computed ten species distribution models (SDMs) and their average prediction to test for differences in age class distribution. The K‐select analysis showed highly significant differences in the ecological niche among all the age classes and we also found highly significant differences in all the SDMs among the three age classes considered. Our results quantitatively showed that target species exhibits age specific shifts in the ecological niche and changes in the spatial distribution of individuals. Our methods are potentially widely applicable for testing differences among age classes of other species and thus, defining the best conservation actions (such as re‐introduction) by taking into account different requirements in different stages of the individuals’ life.

Assessing the impact of removal scenarios on population viability of a threatened, long-lived avian scavenger.

The removal of eggs or chicks from wild populations to create captive populations, reinforce free-ranging populations or reintroduce species into the wild is a restoration tool that requires an assessment of potential detrimental effects upon the donor population. This is an absolute prerequisite when wild donor populations are scarce and small. Here, we forecast the population trend of the largest European population of the bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) over the next 30 years under different demographic and management scenarios (removal of eggs, chicks or fledglings). Projections derived from the combination of a PDP model (Population Dynamic P-system) and a Box-Behnken design would lead to a decline in 77% of all 57 scenarios analysed. Among the 13 scenarios predicting a population increase, only 4 seem realistic in terms of growth rate (0.04%–1.01%), at least if current age at first breeding and productivity would remain constant over time. Our simulations thus suggest that most extraction scenarios would have detrimental effects on the demography of the donor population. Release of captive-born young or removal of only the second hatched chick for subsequent captive rearing and translocation into the wild appear to represent much better supplementation and reintroduction options in this threatened species.

Risk assessment of bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) exposure to topical antiparasitics used in livestock within an ecotoxicovigilance framework

Between 2004 and 2013, 486 suspected scavenger poisoning cases, including 24 bearded vultures (Gypaetus barbatus), were investigated in the Pyrenees and surrounding areas in Spain as part of a monitoring programme regarding accidental and intentional poisoning of wildlife. Poisoning was confirmed in 36% of all analysed cases where scavenger species were found dead within the distribution range of bearded vultures. Organophosphates and carbamates were the most frequently detected poisons. Four of the bearded vulture cases were positive for the presence of topical antiparasitics (3 with diazinon and 1 with permethrin). These likely represented accidental exposure due to the legal use of these veterinary pharmaceuticals. In order to confirm the risk of exposure to topical antiparasitics in bearded vultures, pig feet (n=24) and lamb feet (n=24) were analysed as these are one of the main food resources provided to bearded vultures at supplementary feeding stations. Pig feet had no detectable residues of topical antiparasitics. In contrast, 71.4% of lamb feet showed residues of antiparasitics including diazinon (64.3%), pirimiphos-methyl (25.4%), chlorpyrifos (7.1%), fenthion (1.6%), permethrin (0.8%) and cypermethrin (27.8%). Washing the feet with water significantly reduced levels of these topical antiparasitics, as such, this should be a recommended practice for lamb feet supplied at feeding stations for bearded vultures. Although the detected levels of antiparasitics were relatively low (≤1μg/g), a risk assessment suggests that observed diazinon levels may affect brain acetylcholinesterase and thermoregulation in bearded vultures subject to chronic exposure.

The flight feather moult pattern of the bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus)

Moult is an extremely time-consuming and energy-demanding task for large birds. In addition, there is a trade-off between the time devoted to moulting and that invested in other activities such as breeding and/or territory exploration. Moreover, it takes a long time to grow a long feather in large birds, and large birds that need to fly while moulting cannot tolerate large gaps in the wing, but only one or two simultaneously growing feathers. As a consequence, large birds take several years to complete a full moult cycle, and they resume the moult process during suboptimal conditions. A clear example of this pattern is the Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus), which needs 2–3 years for changing all flight feathers. Here we describe the sequence, extent, and timing of moult of 124 Bearded Vultures in detail for the first time. We found that extent and timing of flight feather moult was different between age classes. Subadults (from 3rd to 5th calendar year) started moult, on average, in early March, whereas adults only started moult, on average, in late April, possibly due to breeding requirements. Second calendar year individuals delayed onset of moult until the middle of May. In general, the moult lasted until November, and although adults started to moult later than subadults, they moulted more feathers. Subadults needed 3 years for moulting all flight feathers, whereas adults normally completed it in 2 years.

Optimization of supplementary feeding programs for European vultures depends on environmental and management factors

Despite the consensus among ecologists and conservationists of the importance of maintaining scavenger feeding patterns based primarily on natural prey sources, human‐mediated feeding remains a widely used management tool for threatened wildlife. Thus, it is important to understand the key factors favoring certain species and age‐groups at supplementary feeding sites. Through a detailed videomonitored experiment of carrion inputs at different locations in the Iberian Peninsula (home of >90% of European vultures), we assessed how variables related to weather, time, demography, management and alternative food availability influenced the occurrence patterns of different age‐classes of vultures at feeding sites. The most threatened and less gregarious species (bearded vulture Gypaetus barbatus and Egyptian vulture Neophron percnopterus) attended to earlier inputs, thus reducing interspecific competition with the Eurasian griffon vulture Gyps fulvus. The bearded vulture was favored by a larger biomass supply at the feeding sites during the chick‐rearing period, while the Egyptian vulture preferred frequent and abundant inputs. Non‐adult cinereous vultures Aegypius monachus were favored at times of lower abundance of natural resources and in the densest networks of feeding sites, while adults preferentially attended sites with periodic inputs close to breeding colonies in areas with lower availability of other natural prey. Finally, the Eurasian griffon vulture showed a preference for continued and periodic inputs, and for feeding sites with numerous other feeding sites in the surroundings. Our results help to inform the management of supplementing food provision with the aim of enhancing its value to reverse the unfavorable conservation status of endangered species and to mitigate the negative effects of the current global threats impacting them.

Using spatial analyses of bearded vulture movements in southern Africa to inform wind turbine placement

Summary Concerns over CO2 emissions during energy generation and its effect on climate change have led to increases in the use of renewables, such as wind energy. However, there are also serious environmental concerns over this type of energy production due to its impacts on bats and birds. In southern Africa, bearded vultures have declined by >30% during recent decades. They are now regionally critically endangered with only around 100 active pairs remaining. This species is considered vulnerable to collision with wind turbines which are planned within their southern African range. In this study, we develop habitat use models using data obtained from 21 bearded vultures of different ages fitted with GPS tags from 2009 to 2013. We further refined these models by incorporating flying heights at risk of collision to predict important areas of use that may conflict with wind turbines. Adult and non‐adult bearded vultures mostly used areas with high elevations and steep and rugged topography in the core area; adults tended to use areas in relatively close proximity to their nest sites, whereas non‐adult birds used areas dispersed over the entire species range and were more likely to fly at risk‐height in areas that were less used by adults. Altitudes of fixes of adults and non‐adults showed that they spent 55% and 66% of their time, respectively, at heights that placed them at risk of collision. Examining the locations of two proposed wind farms in relation to our model of predicted ‘at risk’ usage suggested poor positioning. Indeed, one of these wind farms was located within the 1% of ‘worst’ (most heavily used) sites for non‐adult bearded vultures suggesting that its current location should be reconsidered to reduce the impact on this vulnerable species. Synthesis and applications. We demonstrate the value of habitat use models for identifying intensively used areas, in order to greatly reduce conflicts with developments such as wind turbines. This tool is operable at the scale of regional and national development plans informed by the habitat use of potentially vulnerable species. Such models should provide important supplementary assessments of site‐specific development proposals.

The frequency distribution of lead concentration in feathers, blood, bone, kidney and liver of golden eagles Aquila chrysaetos: insights into the modes of uptake

Several cases of acute lead poisoning of golden eagles Aquila chrysaetos have been documented in the Alps. The question, however, remains how often golden eagles take up lead (once, chronically or episodically) and whether this uptake is in fatal or sublethal amounts. We approached this question by examining the level and frequency distribution of lead concentration in different tissues and in three segments of flight feathers in 41 golden eagles found dead, injured or moribund in the Swiss Alps. The frequency distribution of lead concentration in the blood, liver, kidney, wing coverts and shaft of flight feathers were all right-skewed. The highest values in blood, kidney and liver reached levels typical for acute fatal poisoning. In contrast, the frequency distribution of lead in bones was more symmetrical, but 71 % had bone lead concentrations >10 µg/g, which are considered elevated, and 29 % >20 µg/g, values often observed in cases of lethal poisoning. In 22 % of individuals, only one segment of a flight feather had a high lead concentration, while the other two segments had a low concentration. These findings indicate an episodic intake of lead of various amounts that may be immediately fatal (generating high blood levels) or sublethal. The patterns of lead in flight feathers and in bone suggest a repeated sublethal lead intake by the same individual. Such an episodic lead uptake seems only possible through ingestion of lead particles from carcasses or offal left behind by hunters. This also constitutes a risk to other scavengers, notably to the bearded vulture Gypaetus barbatus for which several high bone lead values have been found.

Anthropogenic activities influence the abandonment of Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) territories in southern Africa

Developing an effective conservation strategy for a critically endangered species relies on identifying the most pressing threats to the species. One approach to elucidate these threats for a long-lived animal with high territorial fidelity is to identify factors associated with territorial abandonment. The Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) has declined dramatically in southern Africa over the past few decades, with nearly 50% of known territories being abandoned. In this study we examine the evidence for 3 hypotheses: that territorial abandonment was associated with (1) human impact, (2) food availability, or (3) climate change, or a combination of these. Model selection was used to determine the relative importance of 7 covariates within the home range of an adult pair, an area of 10 km radius (314 km2) around each nest. Our analyses provided strongest support for the human impact hypothesis, with abandonment more likely in territories with more power lines and higher densities of human settlements. Additionally, within Lesotho, southern Africa, there was some support for the food shortage hypothesis, with territories more likely to have remained occupied where they had a greater number of feeding sites within close proximity. Our data provided no support for the hypothesis that climate change may be driving abandonment through a direct impact of elevation or nest site aspect. Our results are in accordance with the main causes of mortality: poisoning and power line collisions. We suggest that conservation measures should focus on limiting the development of further human settlements and power lines within 10 km of occupied territories, applying mitigation measures to existing power lines and increasing law enforcement and education in areas still occupied by the species.

Differential range use between age classes of southern African Bearded Vultures Gypaetus barbatus.

Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus movements were investigated in southern Africa to determine whether an individual's age, sex or breeding status influenced its ranging behaviour and to provide the information required to guide conservation activities. Data from satellite transmitters fitted to 18 individuals of four age classes were used to determine range size and use. Because of the nature of the movements of marked individuals, these data could be used to determine the overall foraging range of the entire population, which was estimated to be 51 767 km2. Although juvenile, immature and sub-adult birds used different parts of the overall range, their combined foraging range was 65% (33 636 km2) of the overall range. Average adult home ranges (286 km2) were only around 1% the size of the average foraging ranges of non-adults (10 540 –25 985 km2), with those of breeding adults being even smaller (95 km2). Home ranges of breeding adults did not vary in size between seasons but adults utilized their home range more intensively whilst breeding, moving greater distances during the incubation and chick hatching period. Range size and use increased as non-adults aged. Immatures and sub-adults had larger range sizes during winter, but range use of non-adults did not vary seasonally. Range size and use did not differ between the sexes in any of the age classes. Information on home range size and use enables specific areas within the species' range to be targeted for management planning, education and conservation action.

Home Ranges and Movements of Non-Breeding Bearded Vultures Tracked by Satellite Telemetry in the Pyrenees

We present data on home range sizes and spatial parameters of six non-breeding bearded vultures Gypaetus barbatus (one adult, four subadults and one juvenile) using Argos satellite telemetry in the Pyrenees (Spain-France) between 1999 and 2006. None of the birds left the Pyrenees during the tracking period and all individuals included supplementary feeding stations (SFS) in their home ranges. Home range areas reported here were smaller than those previously reported in South Africa and slightly larger than those reported in the Pyrenees and the Alps. Overlap between home ranges and SFS shows the importance of predictable sources of food, especially for inexperienced juvenile birds. Satellite telemetry facilitates improved insight into the bearded vulture's spatial ecology and behaviour, which is key for the conservation of this threatened species.

Manipulating size, amount and appearance of food inputs to optimize supplementary feeding programs for European vultures

Supplementary feeding is one of the most common techniques used to alleviate threats to scavengers species related to the quality and availability of food resources. Because supplementary feeding may have undesired effects, the management of supplementary sites should be optimized from an ecological and conservation perspective. We installed high-resolution videocameras at six Spanish feeding stations recording more that 7500h of observations at 105 feeding events. We analyzed food preferences in the four European vulture species (Eurasian griffon vulture Gyps fulvus, Egyptian vulture Neophron percnopterus, bearded vulture Gypaetus barbatus and cinereous vulture Aegypius monachus) as they relate to the characteristics of the food remains and carcasses provided at feeding sites. Our results suggest that carrion features (format, scattering, prey species, biomass and items) influence differential selection between species and age-classes. At a species level, large inputs of unscattered carrion increased the abundance of actively feeding griffon vultures. The ratio of the abundance of bearded vultures, Egyptian vultures and cinereous vultures with respect to griffon vultures was favored when less biomass was supplied and when the food provided was not presented as whole carcasses. Thus, using medium-size ungulates (i.e. sheep and goats) presented as small, abundant and scattered pieces favors the consumption of the resource by the most endangered species. Our findings can be used to optimize the supplementary provisioning of vultures in cases where this conservation tool is considered essential for managing targeted species or population groups.

Trichomonas gypaetinii n. sp., a new trichomonad from the upper gastrointestinal tract of scavenging birds of prey.

In the context of an epidemiological study carried out by several wildlife recovery centers in Spain, trichomonads resembling Trichomonas gallinae were found in the oropharyngeal cavity of 2 Egyptian vultures (Neophron percnopterus) and 14 cinereous vultures (Aegypius monachus) which did not show any symptoms of trichomonosis. In order to characterize them, these isolates along with seven other T. gallinae isolates obtained from different hosts and from different geographical origin were analyzed. Genetic analyses were performed by sequencing the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU-rRNA) and the internal transcribed spacers (ITS1 and ITS2) and the 5.8S rRNA regions. The morphological study of the isolates in both light and scanning electron microscopy was also performed. The sequences obtained in the genetic analysis coincide with previously published sequences of an isolate named as Trichomonas sp., obtained from a bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus), and showed clear differences to the T. gallinae sequences (97 and 90-91% homology, respectively, for SSU-rRNA and ITS regions) and display higher similarity with Trichomonas vaginalis and Trichomonas stableri than with T. gallinae. Multivariate statistical analysis of the morphometric study also reveals significant differences between the trichomonads of vultures and the isolates of T. gallinae. The isolates from vultures presented smaller values for each variable except for the length of axostyle projection, which was higher. These results together with the different nature of their hosts suggest the possibility of a new species of trichomonad which we hereby name Trichomonas gypaetinii, whose main host are birds of the subfamily Gypaetinae.

Reduced genetic diversity in Bearded Vultures Gypaetus barbatus in Southern Africa

The Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus occurs throughout its range in small and dwindling population fragments with limited genetic differentiation between populations, suggesting that the species might be managed as a single entity. The numbers of East and Southern African Bearded Vultures included in previous studies were small, so we determine the genetic variation within, evolutionary placement of and connectivity among sub‐Saharan African populations. Mitochondrial DNA fragment analyses detected little or no differentiation between populations in Ethiopia and Southern Africa, with reduced haplotype diversity in Southern Africa compared with populations in the Northern Hemisphere. The results inform conservation management of this species globally and locally, and offer guidelines for translocations should populations continue to decline.

Using manipulation of density‐dependent fecundity to recover an endangered species: the bearded vulture Gypaetus barbatus as an example

Summary Endangered species subjected to reintroduction programmes often occur as small and isolated populations with local high density and depressed fecundity. Variation in territory quality may lead to this low fecundity owing to increasing occupation of suboptimal territories as population density grows, known as the habitat heterogeneity hypothesis (HHH). In this context, food supplementation in poor territories may be used to produce extra young which could be allocated to reintroduction programmes. We analyse the density‐dependent fecundity pattern and the underlying mechanism in a small population of bearded vultures Gypaetus barbatus in Aragón (northeast Spain). We then use population simulations to examine the viability of a hypothetical reintroduction programme using extra young produced by supplementary feeding on poor‐quality territories and the effect on the donor population. We also compare the economic cost of such a reintroduction programme in relation to the cost of a traditional captive breeding programme. The wild population showed clear negative, density‐dependent fecundity regulation driven by the HHH mechanism. Simulations showed that extractions for translocations had no relevant long‐term effects on the donor population viability, but a marked population reduction during the extraction period. However, the implementation of supplementary feeding to produce extra young for translocation lessened significantly this expected initial population reduction. Analyses showed that the annual budget of a captive breeding programme for this species could be seven times more expensive than the translocation of extra young produced by food supplementation. Synthesis and applications. Reintroduction programmes based on translocation of wild‐reared individuals, after a supplementary feeding programme oriented to poor‐quality territories, provide a source of young at least seven times cheaper than those from captive breeding programmes. The use of this approach would decrease initial effects on donor population avoiding public criticism. Increasing the number of young released during the first years of the reintroduction decreases total financial cost and increases the final population size in the new area.

Post-fledging Dependence Period and Onset of Natal Dispersal in Bearded Vultures (Gypaetus barbatus): New Insights from GPS Satellite Telemetry

PERIODO DE DEPENDENCIA POST EMPLUMAMIENTO DE GYPAETUS BARBATUS: NUEVAS EVIDENCIAS A PARTIR DE TELEMETRIA SATELITAL Utilizamos telemetria satelital para estudiar el periodo de dependencia post emplumamiento de tres individuos silvestres y seis individuos cautivos de Gypaetus barbatus. El primer vuelo tuvo lugar cuando los pollos tenian 126 ± 7 dias de edad (rango = 111–134 dias) y el inicio de la dispersion ocurrio a los 193 ± 40 dias desde el primer vuelo (rango = 143–231 dias). Los jovenes permanecieron en sus areas natales (o de liberacion, en el caso de aves criadas en cautiverio) durante los primeros dos meses desde la fecha de emplumamiento. Luego, comenzaron a incrementar progresivamente la distancia a sus areas natales; durante este tiempo, la mayoria de los desplazamientos de larga distancia (>15 km) tuvieron lugar antes del mediodia. Los tamanos de las areas de accion registrados en este estudio fueron superiores a los descritos con anterioridad para la especie, principalmente debido a la dif...

Man-induced activities modify demographic parameters in a long-lived species: effects of poisoning and health policies.

Recent changes in sanitary policies within the European Union (EU) concerning disposal of carcasses of domestic animals and the increase of non-natural mortality factors, such as illegal poisoning, are threatening European vultures. However, the effects of anthropogenic activities on demographic parameters are poorly studied. Using a long-term study (1994-2011) of the threatened Pyrenean Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus population, we assess the variation in the proportion of breeding pairs, egg-laying dates, clutch size, breeding success, and survival following a sharp reduction in food availability in 2005 due to the application of restrictive sanitary policies decreasing livestock carcass availability. We found a delay in laying dates and a regressive trend in clutch size, breeding success, and survival following policy change. The maintenance of specific supplementary feeding stations for Bearded Vultures probably reduced the negative effects of illegal poisoning and food shortages, which mainly affected subadult survival. A drop in food availability may have produced changes in demographic parameters and an increase in mortality due to an increased exposure to contaminated food. As a result, supplementary feeding as a precautionary measure can be a useful tool to reduce illegal poisoning and declines in demographic parameters until previous food availability scenarios are achieved. This study shows how anthropogenic activities through human health regulations that affect habitat quality can suddenly modify demographic parameters in long-lived species, including those, such as survival, with high sensitivity to population growth rate.

Wind farms threaten southern Africa's cliff-nesting vultures

Wind farms have been shown to cause bird mortality in many studies. Proposals for the development of wind farms in Lesotho, which is core habitat for small and declining populations of the regionally Endangered Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus meridionalis and regionally and globally Vulnerable southern African endemic Cape Vulture Gyps coprotheres is therefore of concern. We use satellite tracking data to demonstrate that southern African Bearded Vultures spend the majority of their time foraging in landscape zones typically chosen for wind farm development (active selection for ridge tops and upper slopes), and that both species generally fly at heights within the rotor-sweep of a typical, modern wind turbine. We constructed a population viability model using actual population data from the area presently being targeted by the wind energy industry, calibrated with actual data on local population trends, to assess the potential impact of two specific wind farm development proposals on the populations of both vulture species. Even under conservative assumptions, relatively small-scale wind farm development in the Lesotho Highlands is likely to result in accelerated population decline and extinction in both species. The only feasible mitigation is to move the development sites off the ridge tops and upper slopes.