Beam Hardening Effect Research Articles

WE‐FG‐207B‐06: Plaque Composition Measurement with Dual Energy Computed Tomography

Purpose:To investigate the feasibility of characterizing arterial plaque composition in terms of water, lipid and protein or calcium using dual energy computed tomography. Characterization of plaque composition can potentially help distinguish vulnerable from stable plaques.Methods:Simulations studies were performed by the CT simulator based on ASTRA tomography toolbox. The beam energy for dual energy images was selected to be 80 kVp and 135 kVp. The radiation dose and energy spectrum for the CT simulator were carefully calibrated with respect to a 320‐slice CT scanner. A digital chest phantom was constructed using Matlab for calibration and plaque measurement. Pure water, lipid, protein or calcium was used for calibration and a mixture of different volume percentages of these materials were used for validation purposes. Non‐calcified plaque was simulated using water, lipid and protein with volumetric percentage range of 35%∼65%, 5%∼60% and 5%∼40%, respectively. Calcified plaque was simulated using water, lipid and calcium with volumetric percentage range of 50%∼80%, 8%∼45% and 3%∼13%, respectively. We employed iterative sinogram processing (ISP) to reduce the beam hardening effect in the simulation to improve the decomposition results.Results:The simulated known composition and dual energy decomposition results were in good agreement. Water, lipid and protein (calcium) mixtures were decomposed into water, lipid and protein (calcium) contents. The RMS errors of volumetric percentage for the water, lipid and protein (non‐calcified plaque) decomposition, as compared to known values, were estimated to be approximately 5.74%, 2.54%, and 0.95% respectively. The RMS errors of volumetric percentage for the water, lipid and Calcium (calcified plaque) decomposition, as compared to known values, were estimated to be approximately 7.4%, 8.64%, and 0.08% respectively.Conclusion:The results of this study suggest that the dual energy decomposition can potentially be used to quantify the water, lipid, and protein or calcium composition of a plaque with relatively good accuracy.Grant funding from Toshiba Medical Systems and Philips Medical Systems

SU-F-T-372: Surface and Peripheral Dose in Compensator-Based FFF Beam IMRT

Purpose: Flattening filter free (FFF) beams produce higher dose rates. Combined with compensator IMRT techniques, the dose delivery for each beam can be much shorter compared to the flattened beam MLC-based or compensator-based IMRT. This ‘snap shot’ IMRT delivery is beneficial to patients for tumor motion management. Due to softer energy, surface doses in FFF beam treatment are usually higher than those from flattened beams. Because of less scattering due to no flattening filter, peripheral doses are usually lower in FFF beam treatment. However, in compensator-based IMRT using FFF beams, the compensator is in the beam pathway. Does it introduce beam hardening effects and scattering such that the surface dose is lower and peripheral dose is higher compared to FFF beam MLC-based IMRT? Methods: This study applied Monte Carlo techniques to investigate the surface and peripheral doses in compensator-based IMRT using FFF beams and compared it to the MLC-based IMRT using FFF beams and flattened beams. Besides various thicknesses of copper slabs to simulate various thicknesses of compensators, a simple cone-shaped compensator was simulated to mimic a clinical application. The dose distribution in water phantom by the cone-shaped compensator was then simulated by multiple MLC defined FFF and flattened beams with various openings. After normalized to Dmax, the surface and peripheral dose was compared between the FFF beam compensator-based IMRT and FFF/flattened beam MLC-based IMRT. Results: The surface dose at the central 0.5mm depth was close between the compensator and 6FFF MLC dose distributions, and about 8% (of Dmax) higher than the flattened 6MV MLC dose. At 8cm off axis at dmax, the peripheral dose between the 6FFF and flattened 6MV MLC demonstrated similar doses, while the compensator dose was about 1% higher. Conclusion: Compensator does not reduce the surface doses but slightly increases the peripheral doses due to scatter inside compensator.

Effect of Beam Hardening on Transmural Myocardial Perfusion Quantification in Myocardial CT Imaging.

The detection of subendocardial ischemia exhibiting an abnormal transmural perfusion gradient (TPG) may help identify ischemic conditions due to micro-vascular dysfunction. We evaluated the effect of beam hardening (BH) artifacts on TPG quantification using myocardial CT perfusion (CTP). We used a prototype spectral detector CT scanner (Philips Healthcare) to acquire dynamic myocardial CTP scans in a porcine ischemia model with partial occlusion of the left anterior descending (LAD) coronary artery guided by pressure wire-derived fractional flow reserve (FFR) measurements. Conventional 120 kVp and 70 keV projection-based mono-energetic images were reconstructed from the same projection data and used to compute myocardial blood flow (MBF) using the Johnson-Wilson model. Under moderate LAD occlusion (FFR~0.7), we used three 5 mm short axis slices and divided the myocardium into three LAD segments and three remote segments. For each slice and each segment, we characterized TPG as the mean "endo-to-epi" transmural flow ratio (TFR). BH-induced hypoenhancement on the ischemic anterior wall at 120 kVp resulted in significantly lower mean TFR value as compared to the 70 keV TFR value (0.29±0.01 vs. 0.55±0.01; p<1e-05). No significant difference was measured between 120 kVp and 70 keV mean TFR values on segments moderately affected or unaffected by BH. In the entire ischemic LAD territory, 120 kVp mean endocardial flow was significantly reduced as compared to mean epicardial flow (15.80±10.98 vs. 40.85±23.44 ml/min/100g; p<1e-04). At 70 keV, BH was effectively minimized resulting in mean endocardial MBF of 40.85±15.3407 ml/min/100g vs. 74.09±5.07 ml/min/100g (p=0.0054) in the epicardium. We also found that BH artifact in the conventional 120 kVp images resulted in falsely reduced MBF measurements even under non-ischemic conditions.

An Image-Based Finite Element Approach for Simulating Viscoelastic Response of Asphalt Mixture

This paper presents an image-based micromechanical modeling approach to predict the viscoelastic behavior of asphalt mixture. An improved image analysis technique based on the OTSU thresholding operation was employed to reduce the beam hardening effect in X-ray CT images. We developed a voxel-based 3D digital reconstruction model of asphalt mixture with the CT images after being processed. In this 3D model, the aggregate phase and air void were considered as elastic materials while the asphalt mastic phase was considered as linear viscoelastic material. The viscoelastic constitutive model of asphalt mastic was implemented in a finite element code using the ABAQUS user material subroutine (UMAT). An experimental procedure for determining the parameters of the viscoelastic constitutive model at a given temperature was proposed. To examine the capability of the model and the accuracy of the parameter, comparisons between the numerical predictions and the observed laboratory results of bending and compression tests were conducted. Finally, the verified digital sample of asphalt mixture was used to predict the asphalt mixture viscoelastic behavior under dynamic loading and creep-recovery loading. Simulation results showed that the presented image-based digital sample may be appropriate for predicting the mechanical behavior of asphalt mixture when all the mechanical properties for different phases became available.

Brain CT에서 발생하는 선속경화현상 감소방안에 관한 연구

본 연구는 Brain CT검사 시 영상에서 발생하는 선속경화현상의 원인과 감소방법을 알아보기 위하여 선속경화현상에 영향을 미치는 관전압, 관전류, 단면두께, 갠트리 각도, 기준선에 변화를 주었다. 사용한 장비로는 Somatom Sensation 16장비로 Bone opaque head phantom을 이용 영상영향인자에 변화를 주어 스캔하였고 획득한 영상 데이터를 이용하여, CT값 분석을 이용한 정량적 분석과 CT영상평가표를 이용한 정성적 평가를 시행하였다. 정량적 분석결과 관전압은 140kVp일 때 <TEX>$31.56{\pm}2.89HU$</TEX>로 측정되었고, 관전류의 경우 150mA에서 <TEX>$-3.87{\pm}0.12HU$</TEX>, 절편두께는 3mm에서 <TEX>$2.29{\pm}0.78HU$</TEX>로 측정되었으며 갠트리 각도에서 IOML이 <TEX>$13.31{\pm}1.03HU$</TEX>로 선속경화현상이 가장 적었다. 정성적 분석결과 대부분의 평가자들이 140kVp, 150mA, 3mm, IOML 또는 OML에서 스캔한 영상을 선속경화현상이 적게 발생한 영상으로 평가하였으며 모든 조건에서 변화 인자와 비교 시 통계학적으로 유의한 차이가 있었다.(P<0.05) 따라서, 임상적용 시 허용선량한도 범위 내에서 관전압은 높여주고 관전류는 영상 화질 저하에 영향을 미치지 않는 범위 내에서 낮게 설정하며, 절편두께는 해상도 저하를 고려하여 얇은 절편두께를 사용하고, 갠트리 각도는 IOML 또는 OML을 이용한다면 선속경화현상에 의해 발생되어지는 인공물을 최소화시켜 영상 판독자와 환자에게 보다 정확한 양질의 영상을 제공할 수 있을 것으로 사료된다. This study aim is occur in brain CT cause of beam hardening effect and reducing method, We will scan Bone opaque bead phantom on variation of image on the influence factor with equipment called 'Samatom Senation 16' with following listed herein : tube voltage, tube current, slice thickness, gantry angle, base line which affect beam-hardening effect. After that we are going to start Quantitative Analysis resulted in previous scanning and Qualitative Assessment with CT image sheet evaluation. result of quantitative analysis 140kVp <TEX>$31.56{\pm}2.89HU$</TEX> on tube voltage, 150mA <TEX>$-3.87{\pm}0.12HU$</TEX> on tube current, 3mm on slice thickness, and <TEX>$13.31{\pm}1.03HU$</TEX> IOML on gantry angle which was the least beam-hardening effect. Like Qualitative Analysis, we went through Qualitative Assessment and most of valuers got a result of 140kVp on tube voltage, 150mA on tube current, 3mm on slice thickness. As before valuers evaluated gantry angle that scanned image from IOML or OML was the least beam-hardening effect occured. There are meaningful differences when we compare all theses factors statistically(P<0.05). therefore We consider that Minimizing artifact that caused by beam-hardening effect can provide better quality of image to deciphers and patients. if we rise tube voltage in permissible dose limit, set tube current in a limit that does not effect to image quality, use slice thickness too thin enough to harm resolution, use IOML or OML on gantry angle.

일반촬영 검사에서 필터 두께 증가에 따른 전방산란율에 관한 연구

Abstract Recently there has been increasing interest in the filter to reduce the proportion of low-energy photons in the polychromatic X-ray, affect the quality of the image quality by X-ray hardening effect is a situation that has been overlooked. In this study, by evaluating the change in FSR based on the filter and it was quantitatively discuss scatter dose affecting the medical image quality. The results of the experiment, as the thickness of the filter is increased, up to 13.9%p, that tends to FSR increases appearance were evaluated. Based on these results, in compliance with the thickness of the filter that has been recommended in KS standard, even while reducing the radiation dose of the patient, in addition to the noise to about 1%p within the FSR only medical image the contribution to it is conceivable. Therefore, even while reducing radiation dose of the patient, in order to improve the quality of the medical image, the use of appropriate filter is considered important. Keywords : General Radiography, Medical Image, Filter, Beam Hardening Effect, Forward Scattering Dose

New analytical approach for neutron beam-hardening correction

In neutron imaging, the beam-hardening effect has a significant effect on quantitative and qualitative image interpretation. This study aims to propose a linearization method for beam-hardening correction. The proposed method is based on a new analytical approach establishing the attenuation coefficient as a function of neutron energy. Spectrum energy shift due to beam hardening is studied on the basis of Monte Carlo N-Particle (MCNP) simulated data and the analytical data. Good agreement between MCNP and analytical values has been found. Indeed, the beam-hardening effect is well supported in the proposed method. A correction procedure is developed to correct the errors of beam-hardening effect in neutron transmission, and therefore for projection data correction. The effectiveness of this procedure is determined by its application in correcting reconstructed images.

Iterative CT shading correction with no prior information

Shading artifacts in CT images are caused by scatter contamination, beam-hardening effect and other non-ideal imaging conditions. The purpose of this study is to propose a novel and general correction framework to eliminate low-frequency shading artifacts in CT images (e.g. cone-beam CT, low-kVp CT) without relying on prior information. The method is based on the general knowledge of the relatively uniform CT number distribution in one tissue component. The CT image is first segmented to construct a template image where each structure is filled with the same CT number of a specific tissue type. Then, by subtracting the ideal template from the CT image, the residual image from various error sources are generated. Since forward projection is an integration process, non-continuous shading artifacts in the image become continuous signals in a line integral. Thus, the residual image is forward projected and its line integral is low-pass filtered in order to estimate the error that causes shading artifacts. A compensation map is reconstructed from the filtered line integral error using a standard FDK algorithm and added back to the original image for shading correction. As the segmented image does not accurately depict a shaded CT image, the proposed scheme is iterated until the variation of the residual image is minimized. The proposed method is evaluated using cone-beam CT images of a Catphan©600 phantom and a pelvis patient, and low-kVp CT angiography images for carotid artery assessment. Compared with the CT image without correction, the proposed method reduces the overall CT number error from over 200 HU to be less than 30 HU and increases the spatial uniformity by a factor of 1.5. Low-contrast object is faithfully retained after the proposed correction. An effective iterative algorithm for shading correction in CT imaging is proposed that is only assisted by general anatomical information without relying on prior knowledge. The proposed method is thus practical and attractive as a general solution to CT shading correction.

A Model-Based Image Reconstruction Algorithm With Simultaneous Beam Hardening Correction for X-Ray CT

Beam hardening is a well-known effect in X-ray CT scanning that is caused by the interaction of a broad polychromatic source spectrum with energy-dependent material attenuation. If the scanned object only consists of a single material, the beam hardening effect can be corrected by sinogram precorrection techniques. However, when multiple materials are present, it becomes much more difficult to fully compensate for this distortion; in general, the beam hardening can contribute to reconstruction artifacts such as cupping and streaking. In this paper, we present a novel model-based iterative reconstruction algorithm that incorporates beam hardening correction (MBIR-BHC). Unlike most correction algorithms, which require knowledge of the X-ray spectrum or mass attenuation functions, the MBIR-BHC algorithm works by simultaneously reconstructing the image and estimating the beam-hardening function. The method is based on the assumption that the object is formed by a combination of two distinct materials that can be separated based on their densities. We formulate a poly-energetic X-ray forward model using a polynomial function of two material projections: one for the low-density material and one for the high. We then develop an alternating minimization algorithm for jointly estimating the reconstructed image, the material segmentation, and the coefficients of the two component polynomial that models the beam-hardening function. With this approach, the spectrum and mass attenuation functions are not needed in advance, and the correction is adapted to the dataset being reconstructed. We examine the performance of the proposed algorithm using both simulated and real datasets. Results indicate that the MBIR-BHC algorithm significantly reduces several reconstruction artifacts without advanced knowledge of the X-ray spectrum and material properties.

Effect of beam hardening on a visibility-contrast image obtained by X-ray grating interferometry.

X-ray grating interferometry has been highlighted in the last decade as a multi-modal X-ray phase-imaging technique for providing absorption, differential phase, and visibility-contrast images. It has been mainly reported that the visibility contrast in the visibility-contrast image originates from unresolvable random microstructures. In this paper, we show that the visibility contrast is even reduced by a uniform sample with flat surfaces due to the so-called "beam-hardening effect", which has to be taken into account when X-rays with a continuous spectrum is used. We drive a criterion for determining whether the beam-hardening effect occurs or not, and propose a method for correcting the effect of beam hardening on a visibility-contrast image.

Bowtie filters for dedicated breast CT: Analysis of bowtie filter material selection.

For a given bowtie filter design, both the selection of material and the physical design control the energy fluence, and consequently the dose distribution, in the object. Using three previously described bowtie filter designs, the goal of this work is to demonstrate the effect that different materials have on the bowtie filter performance measures. Three bowtie filter designs that compensate for one or more aspects of the beam-modifying effects due to the differences in path length in a projection have been designed. The nature of the designs allows for their realization using a variety of materials. The designs were based on a phantom, 14 cm in diameter, composed of 40% fibroglandular and 60% adipose tissue. Bowtie design #1 is based on single material spectral matching and produces nearly uniform spectral shape for radiation incident upon the detector. Bowtie design #2 uses the idea of basis-material decomposition to produce the same spectral shape and intensity at the detector, using two different materials. With bowtie design #3, it is possible to eliminate the beam hardening effect in the reconstructed image by adjusting the bowtie filter thickness so that the effective attenuation coefficient for every ray is the same. Seven different materials were chosen to represent a range of chemical compositions and densities. After calculation of construction parameters for each bowtie filter design, a bowtie filter was created using each of these materials (assuming reasonable construction parameters were obtained), resulting in a total of 26 bowtie filters modeled analytically and in the penelope Monte Carlo simulation environment. Using the analytical model of each bowtie filter, design profiles were obtained and energy fluence as a function of fan-angle was calculated. Projection images with and without each bowtie filter design were also generated using penelope and reconstructed using FBP. Parameters such as dose distribution, noise uniformity, and scatter were investigated. Analytical calculations with and without each bowtie filter show that some materials for a given design produce bowtie filters that are too large for implementation in breast CT scanners or too small to accurately manufacture. Results also demonstrate the ability to manipulate the energy fluence distribution (dynamic range) by using different materials, or different combinations of materials, for a given bowtie filter design. This feature is especially advantageous when using photon counting detector technology. Monte Carlo simulation results from penelope show that all studied material choices for bowtie design #2 achieve nearly uniform dose distribution, noise uniformity index less than 5%, and nearly uniform scatter-to-primary ratio. These same features can also be obtained using certain materials with bowtie designs #1 and #3. With the three bowtie filter designs used in this work, the selection of material is an important design consideration. An appropriate material choice can improve image quality, dose uniformity, and dynamic range.

SU‐E‐T‐467: Implementation of Monte Carlo Dose Calculation for a Multileaf Collimator Equipped Robotic Radiotherapy System

Purpose:To improve the treatment efficiency and capabilities for full‐body treatment, a robotic radiosurgery system has equipped with a multileaf collimator (MLC) to extend its accuracy and precision to radiation therapy. To model the MLC and include it in the Monte Carlo patient dose calculation is the goal of this work.Methods:The radiation source and the MLC were carefully modeled to consider the effects of the source size, collimator scattering, leaf transmission and leaf end shape. A source model was built based on the output factors, percentage depth dose curves and lateral dose profiles measured in a water phantom. MLC leaf shape, leaf end design and leaf tilt for minimizing the interleaf leakage and their effects on beam fluence and energy spectrum were all considered in the calculation. Transmission/leakage was added to the fluence based on the transmission factors of the leaf and the leaf end. The transmitted photon energy was tuned to consider the beam hardening effects. The calculated results with the Monte Carlo implementation was compared with measurements in homogeneous water phantom and inhomogeneous phantoms with slab lung or bone material for 4 square fields and 9 irregularly shaped fields.Results:The calculated output factors are compared with the measured ones and the difference is within 1% for different field sizes. The calculated dose distributions in the phantoms show good agreement with measurements using diode detector and films. The dose difference is within 2% inside the field and the distance to agreement is within 2mm in the penumbra region. The gamma passing rate is more than 95% with 2%/2mm criteria for all the test cases.Conclusion:Implementation of Monte Carlo dose calculation for a MLC equipped robotic radiosurgery system is completed successfully. The accuracy of Monte Carlo dose calculation with MLC is clinically acceptable.This work was supported by Accuray Inc.

WE‐G‐207‐07: Iterative CT Shading Correction Method with No Prior Information

Purpose:Shading artifacts are caused by scatter contamination, beam hardening effects and other non‐ideal imaging condition. Our Purpose is to propose a novel and general correction framework to eliminate low‐frequency shading artifacts in CT imaging (e.g., cone‐beam CT, low‐kVp CT) without relying on prior information.Methods:Our method applies general knowledge of the relatively uniform CT number distribution in one tissue component. Image segmentation is applied to construct template image where each structure is filled with the same CT number of that specific tissue. By subtracting the ideal template from CT image, the residual from various error sources are generated. Since the forward projection is an integration process, the non‐continuous low‐frequency shading artifacts in the image become continuous and low‐frequency signals in the line integral. Residual image is thus forward projected and its line integral is filtered using Savitzky‐Golay filter to estimate the error. A compensation map is reconstructed on the error using standard FDK algorithm and added to the original image to obtain the shading corrected one. Since the segmentation is not accurate on shaded CT image, the proposed scheme is iterated until the variation of residual image is minimized.Results:The proposed method is evaluated on a Catphan600 phantom, a pelvic patient and a CT angiography scan for carotid artery assessment. Compared to the one without correction, our method reduces the overall CT number error from &gt;200 HU to be &lt;35 HU and increases the spatial uniformity by a factor of 1.4.Conclusion:We propose an effective iterative algorithm for shading correction in CT imaging. Being different from existing algorithms, our method is only assisted by general anatomical and physical information in CT imaging without relying on prior knowledge. Our method is thus practical and attractive as a general solution to CT shading correction.This work is supported by the National Science Foundation of China (NSFC Grant No. 81201091), National High Technology Research and Development Program of China (863 program, Grant No. 2015AA020917), and Fund Project for Excellent Abroad Scholar Personnel in Science and Technology.

SU-E-I-38: Improved Metal Artifact Correction Using Adaptive Dual Energy Calibration

Purpose: The empirical dual energy calibration (EDEC) method corrects for beam-hardening artifacts, but shows limited performance on metal artifact correction. In this work, we propose an adaptive dual energy calibration (ADEC) method to correct for metal artifacts. Methods: The empirical dual energy calibration (EDEC) method corrects for beam-hardening artifacts, but shows limited performance on metal artifact correction. In this work, we propose an adaptive dual energy calibration (ADEC) method to correct for metal artifacts. Results: Highly attenuating copper rods cause severe streaking artifacts on standard CT images. EDEC improves the image quality, but cannot eliminate the streaking artifacts. Compared to EDEC, the proposed ADEC method further reduces the streaking resulting from metallic inserts and beam-hardening effects and obtains material decomposition images with significantly improved accuracy. Conclusion: We propose an adaptive dual energy calibration method to correct for metal artifacts. ADEC is evaluated with the Shepp-Logan phantom, and shows superior metal artifact correction performance. In the future, we will further evaluate the performance of the proposed method with phantom and patient data.

Visualization of delamination in composite materials utilizing advanced X-ray imaging techniques

This work is focused on the development of instrumental radiographic methods for detection of delaminations in layered carbon fibre reinforced plastic composites used in the aerospace industry. The main limitation of current visualisation techniques is a very limited possibility to image so-called closed delaminations in which delaminated layers are in contact practically with no physical gap. In this contribution we report the development of innovative methods for closed delamination detection using an X-ray phase contrast technique for which the distance between delamination surfaces is not relevant. The approach is based on the energetic sensitivity of phase-enhanced radiography. Based on the applied methodology, we can distinguish both closed and open delamination. Further we have demonstrated the possibility to visualise open delaminations characterised by a physical gap between delaminated layers. This delamination type was successfully identified and visualized utilizing a high resolution and computed tomography table-top technique based on proper beam-hardening effect correction.

Bowtie filters for dedicated breast CT: theory and computational implementation.

To design bowtie filters with improved properties for dedicated breast CT to improve image quality and reduce dose to the patient. The authors present three different bowtie filters designed for a cylindrical 14-cm diameter phantom with a uniform composition of 40/60 breast tissue, which vary in their design objectives and performance improvements. Bowtie design #1 is based on single material spectral matching and produces nearly uniform spectral shape for radiation incident upon the detector. Bowtie design #2 uses the idea of basis material decomposition to produce the same spectral shape and intensity at the detector, using two different materials. Bowtie design #3 eliminates the beam hardening effect in the reconstructed image by adjusting the bowtie filter thickness so that the effective attenuation coefficient for every ray is the same. All three designs are obtained using analytical computational methods and linear attenuation coefficients. Thus, the designs do not take into account the effects of scatter. The authors considered this to be a reasonable approach to the filter design problem since the use of Monte Carlo methods would have been computationally intensive. The filter profiles for a cone-angle of 0° were used for the entire length of each filter because the differences between those profiles and the correct cone-beam profiles for the cone angles in our system are very small, and the constant profiles allowed construction of the filters with the facilities available to us. For evaluation of the filters, we used Monte Carlo simulation techniques and the full cone-beam geometry. Images were generated with and without each bowtie filter to analyze the effect on dose distribution, noise uniformity, and contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) homogeneity. Line profiles through the reconstructed images generated from the simulated projection images were also used as validation for the filter designs. Examples of the three designs are presented. Initial verification of performance of the designs was done using analytical computations of HVL, intensity, and effective attenuation coefficient behind the phantom as a function of fan-angle with a cone-angle of 0°. The performance of the designs depends only weakly on incident spectrum and tissue composition. For all designs, the dynamic range requirement on the detector was reduced compared to the no-bowtie-filter case. Further verification of the filter designs was achieved through analysis of reconstructed images from simulations. Simulation data also showed that the use of our bowtie filters can reduce peripheral dose to the breast by 61% and provide uniform noise and CNR distributions. The bowtie filter design concepts validated in this work were then used to create a computational realization of a 3D anthropomorphic bowtie filter capable of achieving a constant effective attenuation coefficient behind the entire field-of-view of an anthropomorphic breast phantom. Three different bowtie filter designs that vary in performance improvements were described and evaluated using computational and simulation techniques. Results indicate that the designs are robust against variations in breast diameter, breast composition, and tube voltage, and that the use of these filters can reduce patient dose and improve image quality compared to the no-bowtie-filter case.

Initial implementation of the conversion from the energy-subtracted CT number to electron density in tissue inhomogeneity corrections: an anthropomorphic phantom study of radiotherapy treatment planning.

To achieve accurate tissue inhomogeneity corrections in radiotherapy treatment planning, the authors had previously proposed a novel conversion of the energy-subtracted computed tomography (CT) number to an electron density (ΔHU-ρ(e) conversion), which provides a single linear relationship between ΔHU and ρ(e) over a wide range of ρ(e). The purpose of this study is to present an initial implementation of the ΔHU-ρ(e) conversion method for a treatment planning system (TPS). In this paper, two example radiotherapy plans are used to evaluate the reliability of dose calculations in the ΔHU-ρ(e) conversion method. CT images were acquired using a clinical dual-source CT (DSCT) scanner operated in the dual-energy mode with two tube potential pairs and an additional tin (Sn) filter for the high-kV tube (80-140 kV/Sn and 100-140 kV/Sn). Single-energy CT using the same DSCT scanner was also performed at 120 kV to compare the ΔHU-ρ(e) conversion method with a conventional conversion from a CT number to ρ(e) (Hounsfield units, HU-ρ(e) conversion). Lookup tables for ρ(e) calibration were obtained from the CT image acquisitions for tissue substitutes in an electron density phantom (EDP). To investigate the beam-hardening effect on dosimetric uncertainties, two EDPs with different sizes (a body EDP and a head EDP) were used for the ρ(e) calibration. Each acquired lookup table was applied to two radiotherapy plans designed using the XiO TPS with the superposition algorithm for an anthropomorphic phantom. The first radiotherapy plan was for an oral cavity tumor and the second was for a lung tumor. In both treatment plans, the performance of the ΔHU-ρ(e) conversion was superior to that of the conventional HU-ρ(e) conversion in terms of the reliability of dose calculations. Especially, for the oral tumor plan, which dealt with dentition and bony structures, treatment planning with the HU-ρ(e) conversion exhibited apparent discrepancies between the dose distributions and dose-volume histograms (DVHs) of the body-EDP and head-EDP calibrations. In contrast, the dose distributions and DVHs of the body-EDP and head-EDP calibrations coincided with each other almost perfectly in the ΔHU-ρ(e) conversion for 100-140 kV/Sn. The difference between the V100's (the mean planning target volume receiving 100% of the prescribed dose; a DVH parameter) of the body-EDP and head-EDP calibrations could be reduced to less than 1% using the ΔHU-ρ(e) conversion, but exceeded 11% for the HU-ρ(e) conversion. The ΔHU-ρ(e) conversion can be implemented for currently available TPS's without any modifications or extensions. The ΔHU-ρ(e) conversion appears to be a promising method for providing an accurate and reliable inhomogeneity correction in treatment planning for any ill-conditioned scans that include (i) the use of a calibration EDP that is nonequivalent to the patient's body tissues, (ii) a mismatch between the size of the patient and the calibration EDP, or (iii) a large quantity of high-density and high-atomic-number tissue structures.

Investigation of the columnar carbon-scatterer length for X-ray spectral measurement on 320-slice computed tomography

A short length scatterer is adopted to measure the X-ray spectrum of computed tomography (CT) equipment with a wide irradiation field in the body axis direction. The purpose of this study is to compare X-ray spectra measured using different length scatterers and determine the most appropriate length for the scatterer. 320-slice CT equipment (Aquilion ONE) was used in this study. Circular carbonrods (3 cm diameter) with five different lengths (1-16 cm) were used as scatterers. The effect of the beam hardening phenomenon from different length carbon rods was evaluated according to the effective energy. The measurement accuracy for photon information was also evaluated based on the photon count corresponding to the characteristic X-ray. As a result, the beam hardening effect was scarcely observed when the 1 cm long scatterer was used, and the number of the photons measured for the characteristic X-ray was the most. Therefore, it was concluded that the 1 cm long circular carbon rod scatterer was the most suitable.

Three‐dimensional imaging with terahertz quantum cascade laser and quantum well photodetector

A three-dimensional (3D) terahertz (THz) computed tomography system with a THz quantum cascade laser as the source and a quantum well photodetector as the receiver is demonstrated. By utilising the algebraic reconstruction technique for image reconstruction, both the external and internal structures of the cross-section are revealed. The iterative algorithm not only reduces the projections, but also provides good suppression of the beam hardening effect. Finally, the 3D image is built by stacking the images at different heights.

Implementing the complete beam hardening effect of the bowtie filter versus scaling beam intensities: effects on dosimetric applications in computed tomography.

The bowtie filter is an essential element of computed tomography scanners. Implementation of this filter in a Monte Carlo dosimetry platform can be based on Turner's method, which describes how to measure the filter thickness and relate the x-ray beam as a function of bowtie angle to the central beam. In that application, the beam hardening is accounted for by means of weighting factors that are associated to the photons according to their position (fan angle) and energy. We assessed an alternative approximation in which the photon spectrum is given a fan angle-dependent scaling factor. The aim of our investigation was to evaluate the effects on dose accuracy estimation when using the gold standard bowtie filter method versus a beam scaling approximation method. In particular, we wanted to assess the percentage dose differences between the two methods for several water thicknesses representative for different patients of different body mass index. The largest percentage differences were found for the thickest part of the bowtie filter and increased with patient size.