Beach Length Research Articles

The economic impact of sea level rise-induced decrease in the carrying capacity of Catalan beaches (NW Mediterranean, Spain)

Sea-level rise (SLR)-induced erosion will contribute significantly to the reduction of the surface of beaches worldwide. In the absence of adaptation measures, this implies a decrease in the recreational carrying capacity provided by beaches, which in turn could significantly affect the economies of the areas associated with the “sun-and-beach” tourism model. Here, we propose a methodology to assess the demand-side economic impact by applying an input/output analysis, assuming that the beach carrying capacity is linked to the potential tourism demand, and consequently, to tourism consumption and output. Moreover, to properly evaluate the spatial variations in the impact throughout the territory, the effects are downscaled to the county level using a set of location coefficients. The model is applied to Catalonia, one of the most visited coastal regions in the Mediterranean. Here tourism contributes approximately 11% of its gross domestic product (GDP) and most visitors are related to coastal tourism. Although SLR affects the entire region with relatively small spatial variations in the induced shoreline retreat, its impact on the beach carrying capacity per county and the number of potential users exhibits a large spatial variability. Considering the RCP8.5 scenario as a reference, Catalonia's key coastal tourism brands, Costa Brava and Costa Daurada, will be the most affected economically, with an expected GDP loss of approximately 2200 million € and 1820 million € (at 2019 values), respectively. Finally, these local estimations were used to identify where the greatest benefits/returns would be derived from implementing adaptation measures to the SLR. This analysis was done by normalising the GDP losses that could be avoided in each county, with the length of beaches needed to provide recreation services to sustain the tourism economy.

Application of Artificial Neural Networks to Predict Beach Nourishment Volume Requirements

The volume of material required for the construction of new and expansion of existing beach sites is an important parameter for coastal management. This information may play a crucial role when deciding which beach sites to develop. This work examines whether artificial neural networks (ANNs) can predict the spatial variability of nourishment requirements on the Croatian coast. We use survey data of the nourishment volume requirements and gravel diameter from 2016 to 2020, fetch length, beach area and orientation derived from national maps which vary from location to location due to a complex coastal configuration on the East Adriatic coast, and wind, tide, and rainfall data from nearby meteorological/oceanographic stations to train and test ANNs. The results reported here confirm that an ANN can adequately predict the spatial variability of observed nourishment volumes (R and MSE for the test set equal 0.87 and 2.24 × 104, respectively). The contributions of different parameters to the ANN’s predictive ability were examined. Apart from the most obvious parameters like the beach length and the beach areas, the fetch length proved to be the most important input contribution to ANN’s predictive ability, followed by the beach orientation. Fetch length and beach orientation are parameters governing the wind wave height and direction and hence are proxies for forcing.

Peluang Peluang dan tantangan pengembangan teknologi Oscilating Water Column (OWS) di Indonesia.

Renewable energy is one of the government's efforts to increase the source of the national electricity supply and reduce fossil energy sources. Indonesia has the potential to develop renewable energy in the fields of ocean waves, sunlight, water, and geothermal. But of all these, the most promising to become renewable energy development opportunities are water energy, geothermal energy and ocean wave energy. Indonesia as an archipelagic country with an area of ​​1,904,556 km2 which consists of; 17,508 islands, 5.8 million km2 of ocean and 81,290 million km of beach length, the potential for marine energy, especially ocean waves, is very potential to be empowered as new and renewable alternative primary energy, especially for power generation. This ocean wave power plant has been widely developed, including: buoy type technology, overtopping devices technology, oscillating water column technology. Oscillating Water Column (OWC) is an alternative technology to convert ocean wave energy using an oscillating water column system. The ocean wave conversion technology of the OWC system was chosen because it is suitable in areas with steep coastal topography and has a wave height value between 0.2 m to 1.19 m and even exceeds so that the electricity generated is greater. OWC technology which will be developed for the territory of Indonesia has several opportunities and challenges. Opportunities and challenges that will be faced include the potential for waves, the application of OWC to waterways in Indonesia, OWC systems, and technology investment for the prospect of long-term energy development in Indonesia.

Quantifying decadal volumetric changes along sandy beaches using improved historical aerial photographic models and contemporary data

AbstractTechnological advances have reinvigorated the aerial photogrammetric technique using both historical and contemporary imagery, and fostered new perspectives in geomorphology studies. On sandy beaches, however, the dynamic processes, the lack of tonal contrast and reduced texture, make the application of photogrammetry extremely more difficult than in most other landscapes. This study quantifies decadal volumetric changes along the beaches of the Great Ocean Road, Australia, using improved digital surface models (DSMs) derived from structure‐from‐motion (SfM) photogrammetry applied to historical archives and a contemporary unmanned aerial vehicle survey. Alongside surficial sediment analysis, this approach demonstrates the potential to relate present‐day to historical morphological changes at sandy beaches worldwide. The discussion highlights the influence of photographic scale, lens distortions, ground control points in segmented blocks, and the use of shoreline as a proxy of volumetric change. DSMs were derived using datasets obtained in 1946, 1966, 1971, 1977, 1986 and 2019, and compared to a 2007 light detection and ranging (LiDAR)‐derived DSM. The emerging approach produced suitable DSMs for volumetric analysis, except for the 1946 dataset, which had the smallest scale and was significantly vertically offset. Volumetric losses of up to 60 m3/m of beach length were calculated for parts of Mounts Bay between 1977 and 2007, and up to 21 m3/m in recent years. At Apollo Bay, the construction of the port in the early 1950s significantly impacted the natural longshore drift to the beach. The adjacent stretch of coastline accreted at a rate of ~35 m3/m between 1966 and 2007, as a function of dredge disposal and changes in sediment transport, whereas a maximum volumetric loss of ~47 m3/m was detected further north between 1977 and 2007. A volume of ~71,330 ± 15,200 m3 was lost from the system from 2007 to 2019, despite the continued deposition along the northern section of the beach.

Den sene vikingetids amfibiske militæroperationer

Late Viking Age amphibious military operationsExperimental archaeological trials with landings and combat formations
 The military operations conducted by Viking Age Scandinavian warriors were immediately recognised as being something extraordinary. Contemporary European writers detail the Norsemen’s attacks, raiding monasteries and rural and urban settlements, while today’s scholars frequently discuss how the Vikings were able to carry out these military operations with such precision and efficiency.
 Seaborne operations were a trademark of Scandinavian Viking warriors. Sea transport of an armed crew, along with supplies and other equipment needed for the campaigning army, enabled both small and large-scale military operations to be undertaken. These operations were often characterised by an element of surprise. A precondition for conducting the lightning seaborne attacks was the ability to plan and execute the different phases of an amphibious military operation.
 In this article, we investigate different aspects of amphibious military operations as mounted by Scandinavian warriors in the Late Viking Age (c. AD 900-1100). The investigation was structured ­using a modern doctrine for undertaking amphibious operations as employed by United States Armed Forces. This doctrine is, of course, not directly applicable when analysing amphibious operations conducted in the Late Viking Age. However, its description of the different phases involved in these operations provides a way of structuring an investigation to ­ensure that all relevant issues are considered when scrutinising the evidence for operations undertaken in the Late Viking Age.
 All the different phases described in the doctrine are analysed: from the initial planning to the embarkation of personnel, equipment and supplies, followed by rehearsals and the movement of the fleet, and finally the actions performed during the actual landing operation. It is, however, the latter, including the subsequent formation of fighting units, that is the primary focus of the article.
 Based on the results and insights ­acquired during sailing trials previously conducted by the Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde, and by undertaking new experimental archaeological trials involving landings and combat formations, the archaeological, iconographical and written evidence is analysed from a new perspective (tables 1-2). It is argued that the practices performed onboard the longships when the fleet was under way contributed to forging the crew into a coherent fighting unit and, furthermore, that the organisational structure onboard provided the foundation for both the mounting of well-organised landing operations and the subsequent formation of the fighting units (figs. 1-6).
 The insights and results gained from the experimental archaeological trials and exam­inations of the historical evidence make it possible to propose a theoretical model for calculating: a) the necessary length of a landing beach in relation to a given fleet size, b) the required size of the beachhead during the landing operation, and c) the size of the area that each unit/ship crew had to control in order to conduct a safe and effective landing operation (fig. 7).
 In conclusion, the experimental archaeological landing and formation trials described in this article clearly show how remarkably swiftly Viking Age amphibious operations could be carried out if well-prepared and smoothly undertaken. And, judging from the written evidence, this was something of which the Vikings had a firm and efficient grasp.

Experimental Study on Permeability Coefficient in Layered Fine Tailings under Seepage Condition

Nearly half of the tailings dams in China are in a state of high-security risks and overservice, and the safety of these tailings dams has always been a concern for relevant scholars. The seepage characteristics of tailings are one of the essential factors affecting the safety of tailings dam. Now, due to the improvement of mineral processing technology, there are many fine tailings dam; the study of the seepage characteristics of the tailings dam is no longer applicable. Fine-grained tailings form uneven deposition in these tailings dams, resulting in the permeability of tailings not conforming to the previous law. Therefore, it is of great significance to study the permeability of fine-grained tailings with uneven deposition. In this paper, the physical model of the simulated tailings dam is established to study the influence of the dry beach slope on the distribution and deposition law of fine tailings during discharge. The test results show that the average particle size of tailings decreases along the length of dry beach, showing the phenomenon of coarsening upstream and thinning downstream. Then, based on the data of fine tailings deposition, the variation characteristics of the permeability coefficient of layered tailings under stable and unstable seepage conditions are studied. The test results show that the variation process of tailings permeability coefficient can be divided into four stages: rapid compaction stage, slow compaction stage, failure stage, and stable stage. Under stable and unstable seepage conditions, the permeability coefficients of unstratified tailing sand are about 10% and 15% higher, respectively, than those in the initial state. The permeability coefficient of layered tailings formed by uneven settlement changes more obviously, which is about 12% and 20% higher than the initial state.

The correlation of the density of seagrass with the abundance of Ophioderma longicauda (Ophiuroidea class) in the Littoral Zone Cikabodasan Beach

Seagrass is a group of flowering plants found along the coast. Seagrasses become one of the habitats of the Ophiuroidea group. The study was conducted at Cikabodasan Beach, Garut. The aim is to determine the correlation of seagrass density with abundance of Ophiuroidea. The research method used is descriptive correlational. Samples were taken as much as 30% of the length of the Cikabodasan beach. The sampling technique was done by purposive sampling where 9 line transects were installed with 90 squared transects measuring 1 x 1 m2 in 3 stations. From the results of the study obtained an average density of two species (Thalassia hemprichii, Cymodocea rotundata) of 346.23 individuals / m.2 This density is included in very tight criteria. While the abundance of Ophioderma longicauda (3.33 individuals / m2) is included in the less category. From the results of statistical calculations with the Pearson correlation test shows the correlation coefficient of 0.834. These results indicate that there is a significant correlation between seagrass density and Ophioderma longicauda abundance.

Influence of Dry Beach on the Dynamic Stability of Ash Storage Field: A Numerical Analysis

Ash storage sites are a commonly used method of disposing fly ash, a byproduct of coal combustion, in China today, and when it accumulates to a certain height, serious geological hazards may occur as a result of seismic activity. In this study, an in situ standard penetration test was carried out on a constructed ash storage site in Northwest China to evaluate the potential for liquefaction of alluvial fly ash within the site, and the results show that dynamic liquefaction can occur within a newly constructed three-stage subdam. A numerical analysis of the influence of dry beach length on the dynamic response of the primary dams and subdams and an assessment of the extent of dynamic liquefaction in the ash storage field were carried out using the Wenchuan seismic waves as input ground motion. Numerical results prove that the acceleration within the ash storage field is relatively low in the original breccias layer and gradually increases with height, with the peak acceleration occurring in the vicinity of the third subdam and a decreasing trend from the subdams towards the ash storage field. As the length of the dry beach increases, the Peak accelerations in the ash storage area occur near the third subdams at larger dry beach length. Meanwhile, the acceleration in the ash storage area close to the surface gradually increases, and, significantly, the range where higher accelerations occur also becomes larger. The maximum horizontal displacements at different dry beach lengths occur at the crest of the third subdam and in the adjacent ash storage area. As the length of the dry beach increases, the maximum horizontal displacements show a certain decrease, but they occur progressively further away from the third subdam, so that, under dynamic action, the dams become safer. The extent of liquefaction decreases at larger dry beach length and extends further away from the third subdam into the ash storage area. It is, therefore, recommended that the length of the dry beach should not be less than 150 m for this ash storage site.

Seepage field characteristic and stability analysis of tailings dam under action of chemical solution

As one of the important influencing factors of tailings dam stability, seepage field distribution within the dam is often affected by the tailings mineral characteristics. While the alkalinity or acidity of reservoir water and long term immersion will partially change the physical and mechanical properties of tailings. This study carried out permeability tests of tailings under the action of chemical solution. On this basis, a three dimensional (3D) model was constructed to analyze the velocity field and effective saturation within the tailings dam. Moreover, the dam section along the valley bottom was selected as the basic section in calculation, so as to analyze the changes in infiltration point and buried depth of the phreatic line under different permeability coefficient ratios. The results suggest that, under the action of acid-alkaline solution, the permeability coefficients of tailings reduced, and the stronger solution acidity-alkalinity resulted in the longer action time and more obvious change; under the action of chemical solution, the fluid flow velocity in the dam gradually decreased, and the drat beach length in the reservoir gradually shortened. Besides, when the upper layer permeability coefficients of tailings was lower than that of the lower layer, the dam phreatic line had a shallow buried depth and a high infiltration point.

Abundance and Distribution of Cigarette Butts on Coastal Environments: Examples from Southern Spain

Litter on beaches is one of the most difficult problems in coastal management and every year, much efforts and public money are invested to try to alleviate and solve the problem. Cigarette butts (CB) are among the most widespread abandoned personal items in the world. In Spain, they are found on all types of beaches, where they are discarded by beach users; however, rivers and streams can also deposit CB on shores. This paper analyses the abundance of CB on different beaches in Southern Spain in order to address and better understand this relevant environmental problem and propose sound solutions to decrease or eliminate their presence. The main factors favouring CB accumulation were identified, namely the seasonality and number of beach users, beach typology (remote, rural, village or urban sites), type of beach sediment and methods and frequency of cleaning operations. Mean and median CB abundance values per 100 m of beach length, calculated from all the data used in this study, were 159 and 68 items, respectively. The largest number of CB were observed at urban sites, followed by village, rural and remote beaches. Further, sand beaches registered higher values of CB than cobble or pebble beaches.

ANALYSIS OF SEA TURTLE NESTING AREA IN PANDAN ISLAND WEST SUMATRA

The research was conducted on February – March 2020 and located in Pandan Island with using survey method. The research aimed to analyze characteristic habitat of the physical and biological turtle nesting beaches, the distribution of turtle’s nests, and the microbial conditions of the turtle’s nests. The result showed that the length of beach was 1,379.4 m with average width of beach was 16.13 m. The average beach slope was 5.52 %. Substrate type dominated by sand substrate. The most abundant vegetation was ketapang tree (Terminalia catappa) and the predators discovered were monitor lizard and dog. There where 4 turtle nests were found, which was 3 nests of hawksbill turtles and 1 nest of green turtle. The average distance of nests from high tide line was 5.7 m with average distance between nest was 177.87 m. Respectively, the average of temperature, humidity, and depth of the nests were 29.58℃, 12.78%, and 53.3 cm. The average size of curve carapace length was 84.25 cm and average curve carapace width was 76.25 cm. The average number of eggs was 144 of each nest with average diameter of eggs was 3.35 cm.

Modelling of embayed beach equilibrium planform and rotation signal

Embayed beaches are highly attractive sandy beaches bounded laterally by rigid boundaries, which deeply affect equilibrium beach planform and shoreline dynamics. We use LX-Shore, a state-of-the-art shoreline change model coupled with a spectral wave model to address embayed beach shoreline dynamics driven by longshore sediment transport processes. The model is applied to different idealized embayed beach configurations including variations in headland lengths. The model simulates a large range of equilibrium embayed beach planforms and associated spatial and temporal modes of shoreline variability. For short headlands enabling occasional headland sand bypassing, both embayed beach curvature and maximum erosion at the upwave side of the embayment increases with increasing headland length. Beach curvature also increases with increasing headland length for headlands long enough to prevent any headland sand bypassing. In contrast, at the same time, embayed beach becomes increasingly curved and symmetric, with maximum localised erosion within the embayment decreasing in intensity. When there is no headland sand bypassing, rotation signal decreases in amplitude and becomes increasingly symmetric with increasing headland length. The modal (time-invariant) directional spreading of incident waves is critical to embayed beach behaviour, with the envelope and variance of cross-shore shoreline change and time-averaged shoreline curvature all increasing with decreasing modal directional spreading. Embayed beach rotation characteristic timescale increases with increasing embayed beach length, while the narrower the embayment the smaller the cross-shore amplitude of shoreline variability. Our simulations provide new insight into the influence of embayment characteristics and incident wave conditions on equilibrium planform and shoreline dynamics of embayed beaches. This work also implies that the degree of potential headland sand bypassing should be taken into account for modelling of beach rotational dynamics and embayed beach dynamic planform configuration.

Anthropogenic litter in freshwater environments – Study on lake beaches evaluating marine guidelines and aerial imaging

Studies on macroplastic pollution in freshwater systems are rare compared to the marine environment. Nevertheless, freshwater systems are worthy to be equally investigated as they are pathways of plastic to the ocean and lakes may act as (temporary) sinks. The aim of this study was to identify sources for plastics and influences on its distribution in a limnic environment. Anthropogenic litter (>5 mm) was monitored semi-annually over a three-year period at four sandy bank border segments of Lake Tollense in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Germany. The selected beaches represent different expositions and vary in their level of anthropogenic activity. Considering all six samplings, mean abundance of anthropogenic litter is 0.2 ± 0.1 items/m2 or 130.9 ± 91.0 items/100 m beach length. The averaged mass of anthropogenic litter is 0.5 ± 1.0 g/m2 or rather 218.7 ± 284.6 g/100 m. Plastic consistently is the predominate material (72%) and cigarette butts are the most found items. A higher pollution by anthropogenic litter is found at the end of tourist season unveiling the impact of anthropogenic activity on litter abundance. Additionally, litter transport via tributaries into the lake plays a role.Testing the detection of anthropogenic litter via aerial images taken by unmanned aerial vehicles resulted in good recovery rates when minimizing the flight height. Furthermore, the analysis of anthropogenic litter distribution displayed on the images showed litter accumulation areas at the border of sandy beach areas. The deployment of marine guidelines in a freshwater environment did work well, however, small changes in the protocol are suggested for future lake beach studies dealing with anthropogenic litter pollution.

Effect of Spatial Resolution on Nationwide Projection of Future Beach Loss Rate in Japan

Takeda, Y. and Udo, K., 2020. Effect of spatial resolution on nationwide projection of future beach loss rate in Japan. In: Malvárez, G. and Navas, F. (eds.), Global Coastal Issues of 2020. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 95, pp. 1310–1314. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208The amount of sea-level rise (SLR) changing along with climate change greatly affects beaches. Projecting nationwide future beach loss requires datasets having sufficient spatial resolutions; however, there has been no case study for an appropriate level of spatial resolution. The present study aims to clarify the effect of spatial resolution on the nationwide projection of future beach-loss rates. We divided the 77 coastal zones specified with reference to Japan's Coast Act, into 586 coastal zones set by the fundamental plan of coastal preservation formulated by prefectures, whose beach length was further separated by nearly every 10 km, resulting in 886 coastal zones. Regarding these 77, 586, and 886 zones, we projected future beach-loss rates in Japan in response to SLR based on the RCP2.6, RCP4.5, RCP6.0, and RCP8.5 scenarios using the Bruun rule. Our projection results showed that the beach-loss rates of the 886 zones decreased by about 6% at maximum compared to those of the 77 zones. The projection results derived from the 586 and 886 zones were nearly the same. This study indicates that higher spatial resolutions less than 20 km in beach length are desirable to project future beach loss in Japan on a nationwide scale.

Small Vessel Tracking Based on Multi Gateway LORA for Indramayu Traditional Fishery

In this study, we use Lora-based data communication for communication between boats and database management systems for vessel. The maximum distance from the Lora is 10 km, and in order to be able to monitor fishermen along the fisherman’s coast in fishing, it is necessary to have a multi-gateway Lora to increase fishermen’s tracking coverage. The system is built using multi gateway Lora installed on the coast. Devices built with a Lora client are installed on a boat with GPS input, the technique of sending data on the device to the gateway uses a time base with a 1-minute period. To minimize data on the gateway that intersects the range of other gateways, a time flag is made to determine the data at a certain time to determine the trajectory of the boat. The result this research is system-monitoring vessel, which is successfully built and can provide fishing boats along the coast with long-range coverage. Based on experiment, multi gateway can be implemented by creating an identical ID gateway, the Lora client will broadcast to the nearest gateway. The maximum distance obtained is 1.35Km NLOS and to cover 20 Km of beach length is needed 15 gateways.

Human access impacts biodiversity of microscopic animals in sandy beaches

Whereas most work to understand impacts of humans on biodiversity on coastal areas has focused on large, conspicuous organisms, we highlight effects of tourist access on the diversity of microscopic marine animals (meiofauna). We used a DNA metabarcoding approach with an iterative and phylogeny-based approach for the taxonomic assignment of meiofauna and relate diversity patterns to the numbers of tourists accessing sandy beaches on an otherwise un-impacted island National Park. Tourist frequentation, independently of differences in sediment granulometry, beach length, and other potential confounding factors, affected meiofaunal diversity in the shallow “swash” zone right at the mean water mark; the impacts declined with water depth (up to 2 m). The indicated negative effect on meiofauna may have a consequence on all the biota including the higher trophic levels. Thus, we claim that it is important to consider restricting access to beaches in touristic areas, in order to preserve biodiversity.

Sand Beach Nourishment: Experience from the Mediterranean Coast of Israel

Beach nourishment along the Mediterranean coast of Israel represents a new approach to mitigate coastal erosion by adding suitable sand to threatened beaches. This ‘soft’ solution has become more environmentally and economically acceptable than traditional ‘hard’ solutions, such as seawalls, revetments, detached breakwaters and groins. Beach nourishment projects have been implemented on the Israeli coast north of Ashdod Port (2011), north of Ashkelon Marina (2015) and in the south of Haifa Bay (2016–2017). The performance of these projects was analyzed and compared with nourishment projects along the Mediterranean beaches of Italy, France and Spain. Despite a lack of detailed documentation on most of the European nourishment projects, they proved more durable than the Israeli projects, which were compromised when the imported sand eventually washed offshore. Key factor for the Israeli projects’ failure include the unsuitable morphology of the beaches; insufficient unit sand volume (m3/m—volume of nourished sand per meter of the beach length); and imported sand that was too fine versus native sand. The unique physical conditions of the Israeli coast specifically, its open shelf and straight coastline subject to relatively high waves with a very long fetch—also contributed to the poor durability of the nourishment. To improve durability on future projects: imported grain size should be at least 1.5–2.0 times the native sand; unit sand volume should be 400–500 m3/m; and supporting measures should be utilized as appropriate.

Numerical Simulation of Seepage and Stability of Tailings Dams: A Case Study in Lixi, China

The purpose of establishing a tailings dam is to safely store tailings to protect the natural environment from damage. Accidents at tailings dams are frequent, however, with serious consequences of not only threats to life and property but also the pollution of the environment. Many tailings dam accidents are caused by seepage failure. In this paper, the object of the case study is the Lixi tailings dam. Three- and two-dimensional finite element models are established. The seepage field of the project under different working conditions is simulated and the position of the phreatic line is obtained. The safety factors under different working conditions are obtained by combining the seepage field with the stable surface. Finally, the influence of different dry and upstream slope ratio on seepage and stability of tailings dam is obtained. The results show that the longer the length of the dry beach, the lower the phreatic line and the greater the safety factor. The higher the upstream slope ratio, the lower the phreatic line and the greater the safety factor.

Myrtle Beach: A history of shore protection and beach restoration

The City of Myrtle Beach (South Carolina, USA) initiated a three-phase plan for beach restoration in the 1980s: Phase 1 — small-scale beach scraping; Phase 2 — mediumscale nourishment by trucks using inland sand; and Phase 3 — large-scale nourishment by dredge using offshore sand. Phases 1 and 2 were locally funded and served as interim measures (1981-1996) until a 50-year federal project could be constructed (1997 to present). In the course of this work, the city pioneered several approaches to beach management and became a model for the state. These include: the prototype SC beach survey program; the profile volume method for determining shorelines in the presence of seawalls, which was codified in the Beach Management Act (BMA) of 1988; the first locally funded nourishment (1986-1987) and FEMA-funded postdisaster renourishment after Hurricane Hugo 1989-1990; and the first surveys of offshore deposits for nourishment. Before restoration, nearly 65% of the 9-mile (14.5 kilometer) oceanfront was armored with seawalls, bulkheads, and revetments (1981). After nourishment, erosion control structures are now buried and fronted by a vegetated storm berm, while a wider beach accommodates millions of visitors each year. Total volumes and adjusted costs of nourishment from 1986 to early 2018 are 4,997,201 cubic yards (3,820,360 m3) and ~$70.8 million ($2018), respectively. On a unit annual beach length basis, the cost of beach restoration and improvement has averaged $46.80 per one foot of shoreline per year (~$153.50/m/yr) ($2018). Oceanfront property values on a unit length of shoreline basis presently range from ~$15,000/ft (~$49,200/m) for single-family homes to ~$75,000/ft (~$250,000/m) for high-rise buildings, suggesting that beach maintenance has cost well under 0.5% of oceanfront property values per year. Sand loss rates have averaged ~0.8 cy/ft/yr (2.0 m3/m/yr), and the rate of nourishment has been more than adequate to keep up with the ~0.37 ft (0.11 m) sea level rise between 1980 and 2018.

Evaluation of recreational potential of Odesa Region’s beach zones

Among all the natural resources available in Odesa Region vacationists prefer beaches and associated entertainments. Quality and general ecological condition of the beaches in addition to the potential and actual beach capacity are key factors for tourist flow to Odesa Region and its socio-economic development. In order to substantiate the recreational and tourist development of the territory an economic and logistic evaluation of its resource base should be carried out. This will make it possible to determine an input tourist flow which dictates the volumes of required tourist infrastructure and material and technical facilities. The purpose of this study is to evaluate recreational potential of Odesa Region’s beach zones. To achieve this, all main natural and anthropogenic factors determining the recreational potential of the coastal zone were analyzed. The study is also based on scientific researches in the field of recreational and tourist activities made by well-known experts, on the existing regulatory frameworks and results of the authors' own research works. For the first time, recreational capacity and logistic potential of Odesa Region’s beach zones were estimated. Based on this estimation multiple conclusions about the most promising areas for future development of the recreation sector were made. It was determined that favorable climatic conditions, considerable length of beaches and other natural and recreational resources allow us to speak about good prospects of the Odesa Region’s coastal zone for various forms of recreation including thalassotherapy. In fact, thalassotherapy opportunity (first of all, beach recreation) is a very important factor of attractiveness for vacationists visiting the Odesa Region’s coastal zone. According to our research, Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi, Tatarbunarskyi and Lymanskyi districts are the most promising ones for recreational development. The total capacity of the beaches here even exceeds the districts' own population. Conducted recreational zoning of the Odesa’s Black Sea coast established that, based on the natural recreational factors, out of 9 recreational microdistricts only 3 of them may be classified as favorable, with 5 being relatively favorable and 1 – completely unfavorable. But, from the perspective of sea water quality, some microdistricts (Luzanivskyi and Arkadiyskyi) do not meet sanitary standards during the period of intense precipitation. It was found that there is a need for expansion of beach areas as well as a need for regulation and redistribution of the recreational and tourist flow. In order to increase recreational attractiveness of Odesa Region, regional and city administrations should pay more attention to the ecological conditions of beach areas of the Black Sea coast. The obtained results may be used by the Department of Culture and Tourism of the Odesa Regional State Administration, divisions of the Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of Ukraine in order to assess the recreational potential of the Odesa Region’s beach areas.