Battery Waste Research Articles

Fostering lithium-ion battery remanufacturing through Industry 5.0

Abstract The rise of electric vehicles (EVs) has resulted in notable environmental benefits, yet challenges persist regarding battery disposal and recovery. The increasing demand for EVs heightens concerns about the environmental impact of lithium-ion battery (LIB) waste, which threatens both ecosystems and public health. Although remanufacturing is seen as a sustainable solution to these issues, current research does not thoroughly examine the role of Industry 5.0 technologies in optimising this process. This study aims to compare and assess the potential of various Industry 5.0 technologies and approaches to enhance the remanufacturing of lithium-ion batteries. Using the AHP-PROMETHEE method, we identify the most critical and influential Industry 5.0 prospects that should be prioritised for addressing key challenges such as diagnostic accuracy, safe disassembly, and high-quality reassembly. The multi-criteria analysis highlights key Industry 5.0 imperatives that can facilitate efficient and effective remanufacturing processes. The study identifies Digital Product Passport (DPP), Digital Twin (DT), and the Internet of Everything (IoE) as critical enablers in optimizing the LIB remanufacturing process. The analysis reveals that DPP stands out as the top enabler, significantly enhancing transparency, traceability, and lifecycle management for LIBs. DT and IoE follow closely, contributing to real-time monitoring, predictive maintenance, and seamless data integration across the supply chain. This paper delves in the emerging concept of the Digital Battery Passport (DBP), a DPP mandated by recent European regulations aimed at improving battery management and circularity. The DBP facilitates access to critical data throughout the battery’s lifecycle, including its origin, composition, and state of health. This information is crucial for optimising remanufacturing processes, ensuring compliance with sustainability standards, and extending battery life. The paper highlights the potential of DBP to transform the EV battery value chain by enhancing transparency and enabling more informed decision-making across stakeholders. Our findings offer significant insights for policymakers, battery manufacturers, and remanufacturing firms.

Sustainable practices in lead acid battery recycling

Recycling automotive batteries is a vital practice in the context of sustainability. Purchasing power in developing and emerging economies has increased dramatically over the past decades, especially when considering the proliferation of consumer cars worldwide. Consequently, the growing manufacturing volume of automotive batteries inevitably leads to increased battery waste, thus placing significant pressure on the sustainable development of human society. Recycling lead-acid batteries as a sustainable product is not only environmentally beneficial but also economically beneficial. A typical new lead-acid battery contains up to 80% recycled lead, and the plastic and battery components are also recyclable. When combined, almost all environmentally hazardous materials in the battery can be recycled. In this paper, we will study the recycling of lead-acid batteries used in fuel-powered cars. The results show that 54.4% of the metals in the battery, 28% of the plastics, and 17% of the liquids can be recycled, which provides materials for the manufacture of new batteries or for other uses.

Pollutant-free pyrolysis strategy for direct upgrading of cathode materials from spent lithium-ion batteries

The recycling of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has been dogged by air pollutants containing fluoride (e.g. HF, PF5, POF3). Pyrolysis is a technique that can eliminate polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) from the cathode electrode sheets of spent LIBs, effectively separating the cathode material from the aluminum (Al) foil. Nonetheless, the HF gas generated during pyrolysis not only corrodes equipment but also presents serious environmental risks. To address this, a novel, eco-friendly strategy is introduced for the direct upgrading of cathode active materials (CAM). The strategy's cornerstone involves incorporating a minor amount of calcium into the original cathode material's coating, and it leverages mechanical stirring during the waste battery material separation process to ensure the electrode is fully detached from the current collector at a reduced temperature. The pyrolysis mechanism elucidates that fluorine-containing organic pollutants are converted into metal fluorides and deposited on the surface of cathode particles during aerobic pyrolysis, thereby improving the interfacial stability of lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide (NCM) materials, reducing transition metal dissolution. This strategy not only eliminates the release of fluorine-containing organic pollutants during pyrolysis but also achieves direct regeneration of CAM. This work underscores the importance of the cathode materials' manufacturing process in facilitating the recycling of spent LIBs and provides an environmentally friendly and economically viable solution for the battery recycling industry.

Roasting-Water Leaching-Slag Cleaning Process for Recovery of Valuable Metals from Li-ion Battery Scrap

Abstract Waste lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are important secondary sources of valuable materials, including Critical Raw Materials (CRMs) like lithium, cobalt, manganese, and graphite, as defined by the European Union (EU). LIBs also contain nickel and copper, classified as Strategic Raw Materials by the EU since 2023. Significant efforts have been made to develop efficient recycling processes for waste LIBs, with pyrometallurgical processes playing a key role. These technologies are relatively mature, with high adaptability for different raw materials and involve smelting waste batteries above the melting points of battery components, followed by separating metals through reduction reactions. This method efficiently recovers cobalt, copper, and nickel as a metal alloy or matte, while lithium and manganese are lost in the slag phase. The goal of this work was to enhance the recovery of valuable battery metals by combining hydro- and pyrometallurgical processes. Mechanically prepared battery black mass underwent selective sulfation roasting to convert LiCoO2 and Mn-oxides into Li, Co, and Mn sulfates. After roasting, the battery scrap was leached in distilled water at 60 °C, recovering 95% of lithium, 61% of manganese, and 35% of cobalt. The solid leaching residue was then mixed with industrial Ni-slag and biochar. Two experimental series were carried out, one with the addition of industrial Ni-concentrate and one without. The smelting experiments were conducted at 1350 °C in flowing argon atmosphere as a function of time (5–60 min) to investigate the reduction behavior of battery metals. The results show that Co and Ni from the slag and leach residue can be efficiently recovered in the slag cleaning stage. Graphical Abstract

REMAINING USEFUL LIFE PREDICTOR FOR EV BATTERIES USING MACHINE LEARNING

Electric vehicles (EVs) are a key solution to combat rising carbon emissions and reduce dependence on fossil fuels. In India, the government has implemented policies such as the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles (FAME) scheme to promote EV adoption Predicting the Remaining Useful Life (RUL) of EV batteries using machine learning ensures better battery health management and enhances operational efficiency. Applications include EV fleet management, battery recycling, and cost-effective maintenance. To develop a machine learning model that accurately predicts the Remaining Useful Life (RUL) of EV batteries to improve operational reliability, reduce maintenance costs, and support sustainable energy practices. Before the advent of machine learning, traditional methods for estimating EV battery life relied on rule-based approaches, where predefined thresholds such as voltage drops or charge cycles were used to predict battery health. Empirical models, often linear, were developed based on historical performance data but lacked the ability to adapt to dynamic usage patterns. Additionally, manual battery testing was a common practice to measure degradation, though it was time-consuming, labor-intensive, and often prone to inaccuracies in capturing the complex nature of battery aging. Traditional systems for predicting EV battery life are largely empirical and rely on static models that fail to capture dynamic battery behavior. These methods often lack precision, are labor-intensive, and provide limited adaptability to varying usage conditions, leading to inefficiencies in battery management. The increasing demand for EVs and their critical dependence on battery performance drives the need for accurate RUL prediction systems. Traditional methods are insufficient in addressing the complex, non-linear nature of battery degradation. The proposed machine learning-based system leverages real-time battery performance data, including metrics like voltage, current, temperature, and charge-discharge cycles, to train predictive models capable of estimating the Remaining Useful Life (RUL) of EV batteries. This approach significantly enhances accuracy by capturing complex patterns in battery degradation, enables real-time predictions for immediate insights, optimizes costs by minimizing unnecessary replacements and maximizing resource utilization, and promotes sustainability through efficient recycling and reduced battery waste.

Environmental Literacy of Generations X, Y, and Z in a Provincial Center in Turkey: A Descriptive-Comparative Study

Objective: This research was conducted to determine the environmental literacy and behaviors of Generations X, Y, and Z. Method: This descriptive-comparative study involved a total of 1,148 participants, comprising 376 from Generation X, 399 from Generation Y, and 373 from Generation Z. Data were collected using the Demographic Characteristics Form and the Environmental Literacy Scale for Adults. Results: It was found that 67.8% of participants had not received any education on environmental issues, 81.8% disposed of used cooking oil in the trash or sink, 43.6% discarded waste batteries in the trash, and 62.1% were unfamiliar with the concept of ecological footprint. The environmental literacy of Generation Z was significantly lower than that of Generations X and Y. Nuclear family type, perception of high income, lack of social security, willingness to receive environmental education, separate disposal of waste cooking oil, disposal of waste batteries in designated units, and use of recycling bins were identified as factors influencing environmental literacy for all participants. These variables explained 22.4% of the variance in environmental literacy. Conclusion: The results revealed insufficient environmental behaviors in the sample and lower environmental literacy in Generation Z compared to Generations X and Y. It is recommended to conduct informative and educational programs and prepare public service announcements in order to enhance community environmental awareness and promote appropriate environmental health behaviors

Environmental impact study of the sightseeing electric vehicle supply chain based on the B2C e-commerce model and LCA framework

Studying the impact of the electric vehicle supply chain on the environment is crucial for determining the future development direction of the industry. We have developed a method for evaluating the impact of supply chains on the environment based on a lifecycle framework. This method innovatively seeks the connection between the lifecycle process of physical products and the supply chain, and organizes the environmental impact assessment factors of the electric vehicle supply chain from three aspects: physical resources, power energy, and waste emissions, in order to construct an LCA fuzzy comprehensive evaluation model for the electric vehicle supply chain. For the first time, the research method of transforming qualitative analysis into quantitative data was introduced into the life cycle environmental impact assessment, and empirical research was conducted using the supply chain of sightseeing electric vehicles as an example. The results indicate that the scrapping stage of electric vehicles has the most severe impact on the environment. Strengthening research on strategies or technologies for handling waste batteries and automobiles is key to improving the environmental performance of the supply chain. This method breaks through the requirements and limitations of traditional life cycle assessment methods on data sources and parameters, avoids large-scale calculations that cannot be separated from subjective factors in traditional methods, simplifies the process of supply chain environmental impact assessment, shortens the evaluation time, and improves the efficiency of environmental impact assessment. It is more practical and has good application prospects.

One-step green hydrometallurgical recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries’ cathode

The transition towards a low-carbon future hinges on the advancement of Lithium-ion battery (LIBs) technology, which has spurred a significant demand for raw materials and the management of waste batteries containing hazardous substances. Developing efficient and environmentally friendly recycling strategies is essential to tackle these challenges. Here, we introduce a one-step green hydrometallurgical recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries’ cathode on the basis of contact-electro-catalytic (CEC) process. It combines the separation of the cathode materials in pretreatment, and leaching in a single step. Specifically, electrode pieces are directly dealt with the CEC treatment, which can remove organic binders (e.g. Polyvinylidene Fluoride) and reduce high-valence metal ions. Results indicate that the leaching efficiency of lithium, nickel, cobalt, and manganese can reach 99.6%, 98.3%, 99.4%,97.4%. Plus, SiO2 is a cost-effective and readily available catalyst requiring no modification. Therefore, the CEC-assisted one-step hydrometallurgical recycling exhibits sustainability, rapidness, high efficiency, and eco-friendly for LIBs recycling.

"Antibacterial and Cytotoxic Efficacy of Ag-MnO₂/ PIn Nanocomposites Derived from Battery Waste"

"Antibacterial and Cytotoxic Efficacy of Ag-MnO₂/ PIn Nanocomposites Derived from Battery Waste"

Sustainable Fabrication of Graphene Oxide Cathodes from Graphite of Failed Commercial Li-Ion Batteries for High-Performance Aqueous Zn-Ion Batteries.

The need for revamping spent graphite (SG) from battery waste of commercial lithium-ion batteries and employing it as a source for the synthesis of graphene oxide (GO) is focused. Thus, this work emphasizes the study of GO sheets, synthesized via modified Hummer's method from spent graphite (SG-GO) as cathodes for an aqueous zinc ion battery (AZIB) system, for the first time in literature. For comparison, graphene oxide is also synthesized using commercial graphite powder, its structural and morphological properties are analyzed with SG-GO. The coin cell AZIB device is fabricated for both the GOs and the electrochemical performances revealed that SG-GO portrayed an enhanced charge capacity of 270 mAh g-1 at 0.1 A g-1 in 3m ZnSO4 in comparison to GO which delivered ≈198 mAh g-1 at the same current density of 0.1 A g-1. The long-run cycling analysis of SG-GO elucidated the capacity retention of 77.3% at 1 A g-1 even after 1000 cycles. Moreover, the performance of SG-GO is inspected in different electrolyte systems and the suitable electrolyte underwent concentration variation studies to figure out the capability of the system in storing Zn2+ ions which is found to be more in 3M ZnSO4 electrolyte.

Mass balance of nickel manganese cobalt cathode battery recycle process

Batteries made from lithium, nickel, manganese, and cobalt are widely used, especially in the electrical industry, because they have high specific capacity, high safety, and low production costs. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), the consumption of batteries used for electric vehicles will increase from 8 million in 2019 to 50 million in 2025 and to 140 million in 2030. As a result, the waste produced is also increasing. This type of lithium ion battery (LIB) which contains heavy metal elements such as nickel, manganese and cobalt can be recycled. This research aims to calculate the mass balance of the recycling process for nickel manganese cobalt (NMC) battery cathodes. The processing process begins with mixing, leaching, filtration, drying the results of the filtration process, molarity adjustment, Flame Assisted Spray Pyrolysis, and calcination. Based on the results of mass balance calculations for the NMC recycle battery cathode, the amount obtained was 43.427 kg/batch from 100 kg of cathode waste raw material. Apart from that, data was obtained on the metals that were successfully recycled, namely NiO, MnO, CoO, Fe2O3, MgO, Al2O3, Cr2O3, and Li2O. The research results provide information that NMC battery waste can be an opportunity for the NMC metal supply chain and can reduce environmental pollution.

High-salt-resistance aerogels composed of chitosan and anode powder for effective solar interfacial evaporation

Solar interfacial evaporation technology is widely utilized for seawater desalination and wastewater treatment, which are currently areas of significant research interest. The primary factors to consider when transitioning the evaporator from laboratory settings to practical applications are its mechanical stability and resistance to salt. In the present study, composite aerogels consisting of an anode powder (AP), polypyrrole (Ppy), and chitosan (CS) were produced by a conventional technique involving physical cross-linking and in situ growth. The resulting aerogel has a compact pore structure that enhances the scattering of light on its surface and increases the area available for evaporation. As a result, the material exhibits exceptional photothermal capabilities, with water evaporation rates and photothermal conversion efficiencies of 1.865 kg m−2 h−1 and 85.96%, respectively, when exposed to 1 sun illumination. Simultaneously, the aerogel exhibits exceptional efficacy in water purification and resistance to salt when employed for the treatment of heavy-metal wastewater, seawater, and highly concentrated saline solutions. Furthermore, the utilization of AP as a light-absorbing substance aligns with the principles of green chemistry by promoting the recycling and repurposing of waste materials. These results provide novel insights into the potential applications of lithium battery waste and the optimization of solar-interfacial-evaporator design.

Management strategies and recycling technologies: Lessons learned and roadmap for sustainable circular battery waste management in Saudi Arabia

Management strategies and recycling technologies: Lessons learned and roadmap for sustainable circular battery waste management in Saudi Arabia

Separation of Magnesium and Lithium Ions Utilizing Layer-by-Layer Polyelectrolyte Modification of Polyacrylonitrile Hollow Fiber Porous Membranes.

This study explores the layer-by-layer (LBL) modification of polyacrylonitrile (PAN) hollow fibers for effective Mg2+/Li+ separation. It employs an LBL method of surface modification using polyelectrolytes, specifically aiming to enhance ion selectivity and improve the efficiency of lithium extraction from brines or lithium battery wastes, which is critical for battery recycling and other industrial applications. The modification process involves coating the hydrolyzed PAN fibers with alternating layers of positively charged polyelectrolytes, such as poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH), polyethyleneimine (PEI), or poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDADMAC) and negatively charged polyelectrolytes, such as poly(styrene sulfonate) (PSS), to form polyelectrolyte multilayers (PEMs). This study evaluates the modified membranes in Mg2+ and Li+ salt solutions, demonstrating significant improvements in selectivity for Mg2+/Li+ separation. PAH was identified as the optimal positively charged polyelectrolyte. PAN hollow fibers modified with ten bilayers of PAH/PSS achieved rejection rates of 95.4% for Mg2+ ions and 34.8% for Li+ ions, and a permeance of 0.39 LMH/bar. This highlights the potential of LBL techniques for effectively addressing the challenges of ion separation across a variety of applications.

Governance of Waste Batteries as a Circular Resource: The Role of Policy Actors and Stakeholder Collaboration

Objectives : The study aims to address the gap in research on governance strategies for managing used electric vehicle (EV) batteries in Korea. The goal is to explore strategies that enhance governance and promote a sustainable ecosystem for used batteries, positioning them as a circular resource to aid in reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the transportation sector.Methods : An expert survey involving 37 respondents was conducted to gather insights into the governance models for EV battery management. The survey sought to identify key actors and preferred governance models necessary to establish a comprehensive ecosystem for used batteries.Results and Discussion : The survey results revealed that companies (54%) were identified as the primary actors needing adjustments and expanded authority in EV battery governance, followed by the central government (40%) and local governments (5%). Regarding preferred governance models, the Business-to-Government (B2G) model was the most favored (40%), followed by Business-to-Central Government (B2CG) (37%), Business-to-Local Government (B2LG) (16%), and Central Government-to-Local Government (CG2LG) (5%). These findings emphasize the importance of cooperative governance in fostering the growth of the EV battery industry.Conclusion : The study provides valuable insights for developing a sustainable ecosystem for used batteries as a circular resource. The findings offer critical evidence to inform policy formulation, underscoring the need for a collaborative governance framework to support industry growth and sustainability.

End-of-life management of electric vehicle batteries utilizing the life cycle assessment

ABSTRACT To achieve sustainable development in the electric vehicle (EV) industry, this study assesses the environmental impacts of retired electric vehicle batteries (EVBs) throughout the life cycle. The life cycle assessment (LCA) with the ReCiPe method is implemented with environmental impacts: CO2eq emissions, human toxicity, terrestrial acidification, particulate matter (PM) formation, metal depletion, and fossil depletion. Four EOL management scenarios, namely the landfilling, remanufacturing, repurposing, and recycling processes, are examined with the background data obtained from the Ecoinvent database v3.6 and data collected from secondary sources. The study results reveal that the landfilling scenario is highly harmful to humans and due to its highest environmental impacts, specifically CO2 emission (2,236 kg CO2eq) from the material extraction process. In contrast, the recycling scenario is the most environmentally friendly scenario, as it reduces the human toxicity (45,934 kg 1,4-DBeq), terrestrial acidification (425 kg SO2eq), and metal depletion (20,129 kg Feeq), achieving the lowest final impact score of −277. The study further examines the recycling scenario with different energy mixes, i.e. natural gas, coal, and renewable energy. The results suggest that the complete use of renewable energy could improve the final impact value to −281.1. The results also recommend the remanufacturing scenario as it reduces CO2eq emission by 1,193 kg CO2eq. The government may utilize the study results to enhance the circular economy of retired EVBs through various strategies to compete in the global market. A comprehensive evaluation of EOL management practices of retired EVBs offers valuable insights for policymakers and stakeholders to minimize the ecological footprint of the EV industry and support Thailand’s sustainability goals. A future study may be performed to compare the EOL management scenarios with actual practices and suggest suitable improvements. The policy-based simulations could be implemented to examine long-term impacts of EOL management practices in Thailand. Implications: This study examines the end-of-life management of electric vehicle batteries (EVBs) through remanufacturing, repurposing, and recycling scenarios. The results show that the recycling scenario is the most effective EOL strategy for retired EVBs as it generates the lowest human toxicity, terrestrial acidification, and metal depletion. Alternatively, the remanufacturing scenario is the most suitable scenario when CO2eq emission is a major concern. The results also recommend at least half of renewable energy to be used in electricity production to improve the final impact of this study.

MoS2/ZnS heterostructure cathode with intralayer regulation for eco-friendly, degradable zinc-ion batteries

Zinc-ion batteries (ZIBs) feature low cost and environmental friendliness and provide a promising solution to the escalating challenge of troublesome Li-ion battery waste streams. However, strong electrostatic interaction between Zn2+ and layered-structure materials and the introduction binders and conductive agents results in limited ion diffusion and charge-transfer kinetics. Herein, we reported an in-situ construction strategy of MoS2/ZnS heterostructure cathode materials for high-performance ZIBs. The generated built-in electric field and interface reaction sites effectively reduce the mitigation energy barrier of Zn2+, thereby enhancing electrochemical transport and reaction kinetics. Theoretical calculations demonstrate that heterostructure reduces the Zn2+ diffusion barrier along the ab-plane and activates c-axial transport for Zn2+. The MoS2/ZnS heterostructure electrodes can deliver a high specific capacity (337 mAh/g at 0.05 A/g, 2.12 mAh cm−2 at 1 mA cm−2) and ultra-long cycling stability (87.3 % capacity retention after 10,000 cycles at 10 A/g). Systematic investigations confirm the fast diffusion kinetics of Zn2+ and additional H+ storage processes. As a proof-of-concept, the constructed MoS2/ZnS quasi-solid-state ZIBs can operate normally in a liquid environment and degrade completely, as well as environmentally friendly, with almost no adverse impact on the soil microecosystem after being discarded.

Implementasi Model Convolutional Neural Network dalam Aplikasi Android untuk Identifikasi Limbah Infeksius

After the COVID-19 pandemic passed, Indonesian citizens were still strict about using masks because active cases were still found. However, not all Indonesian people are aware that masks are an infectious waste, so after use, they are still disposed of carelessly. Apart from masks, other infectious waste in the form of battery waste which contains hazardous chemicals and food waste potentially to spread infectious diseases, is also dangerous for humans. These kinds of waste are major contributors to global pollution. Research on waste classification has been carried out a lot, but especially for infectious waste has not received much attention from researchers. For this reason, this research is useful to help the public distinguish infectious waste such as used food scraps, masks, and batteries so that they are more careful in disposing of waste. The research started with collecting datasets, which came from combining several infectious waste datasets available on the internet. This is done because there is no publicly available dataset that specifically contains infectious waste. Then, a classification model is created with Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) algorithm which has an accuracy of more than 90%. This algorithm has been widely used in previous studies but has never been used as a model applied to Android applications to classify infectious waste. In this study, the CNN model is applied to Android applications. From this research, an Android application with the CNN algorithm will be produced which can help Indonesians identify infectious waste with an accuracy of 94%.

Battery Recycling: Policy and Technology Trends

Currently, batteries are used as a promising power source for all industries, and are an essential technology field not only for the industry but also for everyday life. Secondary batteries can be charged or discharged within the allowed range, so they can be used continuously for the life of the battery, and the demand for secondary batteries capable of semi-permanent charging/discharging is increasing through the development of technologies such as IoT, AI, and electric vehicles. In particular, the global electric vehicle conversion speed is very fast, and through this, the spent battery reuse/recycling industry is rapidly growing. The supply chain of the battery market consists of raw materials, materials/parts, products, consumers, and recycling. Along with the increase in demand, the field of waste battery recycling is attracting attention with carbon neutrality, and technology development is being carried out in detail by being divided into areas such as reuse, re-manufacturing, and recycling. Among them, the spent battery reuse/recycling market is expected to grow 19 times from $10.77 billion in 2023 to $208.94 billion in 2040, and battery recycling is emerging as a way to secure a stable supply chain for battery metals as the rapid occurrence of spent batteries is expected.In addition, it is important to strengthen the eco-friendliness of the battery industry due to strengthening global carbon neutrality policies and visualizing climate trade regulations. As the demand for key minerals such as lithium and graphite increase and competition to secure global key minerals is in full swing due to changes in industrial paradigms such as decarbonization/electrification, it is also very important to secure competitiveness in securing key minerals. Resource recovery technology for waste batteries is required to respond to supply chain issues and ESG issues, and the importance of recycling waste batteries is increasing. The waste battery supply market is being formed mainly in the United States, China, and Europe, and among them, the United States and Europe are expected to inevitably switch to an eco-friendly battery reuse/recycling market in terms of intensive environmental regulations and supply chain stabilization. Therefore, it is very necessary to develop next-generation technologies related to the recycling of spent batteries.The waste battery recycling process can be defined as a technology that extracts expensive rare metals from the anode active material of waste batteries. Currently, research and development are being conducted centering on lithium cobalt oxide, a small lithium secondary battery, but it is gradually changing centering on nickel cobalt manganese, a medium and large secondary battery for electric vehicles. The rare metal recovery process is divided into a process of removing and crushing the risk of explosion of a waste battery, which is a pre-treatment process, and recovering the rare metal using a chemical solution, which is a post-treatment process. The post-treatment process has higher technical difficulty, uses a solvent extraction method, and a technology that recovers rare metals such as cobalt and nickel and purifies them to a purity of 99.9% or higher is applied while repeatedly performing the solvent extraction method and electrolytic refining. Advanced technology is being developed to improve the performance of post-treatment technology around the world.Technologies such as reducing the production cost of cathode materials, achieving more than 99% recovery of core metals, and reducing wastewater discharge in spent battery reuse/recycling technologies need to be studied intensively.It is expected to secure a stable rare metal through the recycling of waste batteries, and it will be very important to secure battery resource technology through this.

Exclusive Generation of Single-Atom Sulfur for Ultrahigh Quality Monolayer MoS2 Growth.

Preparation of high-quality two-dimensional (2D) transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs) is the precondition for realizing their applications. However, the synthesized 2D TMDCs (e.g., MoS2) crystals suffer from low quality due to the massive defects formed during the growth. Here, we report single-atom sulfur (S1) as a highly reactive sulfur species to grow ultrahigh-quality monolayer MoS2. Derived from battery waste, sulfurized polyacrylonitrile (SPAN) is found to be exclusive and efficient in releasing S1. The monolayer MoS2 prepared by SPAN exhibits an ultralow defect density of ∼7 × 1012 cm-2 and the narrowest photoluminescence (PL) emission peak with full-width at half-maximum of ∼47.11 meV at room temperature. Moreover, the statistical resonance Raman and low-temperature PL results further verify the significantly lower defect density and higher optical quality of SPAN-grown MoS2 than those of the conventional S-powder-grown samples. This work provides an effective approach for preparing ultrahigh-quality 2D single crystals, facilitating their industrial applications.