Battery Thermal Management System Research Articles

Simulation analysis and optimization of containerized energy storage battery thermal management system

The air-cooling system is of great significance in the battery thermal management system because of its simple structure and low cost. This study analyses the thermal performance and optimizes the thermal management system of a 1540 kWh containerized energy storage battery system using CFD techniques. The study first explores the effects of different air supply angles on the heat transfer characteristics. Second, the evaluation indexes of heat removal efficiency, air exchange efficiency, temperature and velocity uniformity coefficient are used to select the optimal air supply angle by the Topsis method. Then, the return air vent position is optimized based on the optimal air supply angle, and the optimal solution is obtained. Research indicates that increasing the air supply angle enhances air mixing within the container and simultaneously decreases the battery pack surface temperature. With a 90° air supply angle, the maximum temperature reduces to 33.58 °C, a 19.52 % reduction compared to 30°. The temperature difference across each battery surface also drops by 16.02 % to 3.46 °C. Adjusting the position of the return air vent further improves temperature uniformity and air flow distribution within the battery compartment. When the air supply angle is 90° and the return air vent evenly distributed at Z = 0.85 m next to the fire door, an optimal uniform temperature distribution is achieved. This reduces the maximum surface temperature by 16.47 %, from 36.67 °C to 30.63 °C and decreases the average temperature difference to 3.0 °C, 21.4 % lower. Thus, the present method effectively enhances the performance of the containerized energy storage battery thermal management system.

The Impact of Wide Discharge C-Rates on the Voltage Plateau Performance of Cylindrical Ternary Lithium-Ion Batteries

Battery voltage plateau characteristics are crucial for designing and controlling battery management systems. Utilising the plateau period attributes to their fullest extent can enable optimal battery control, enhance battery performance, and prolong battery lifespan. This research aimed to investigate the performance of cylindrical ternary lithium batteries at various discharge rates, focusing on the variations in terminal voltage, capacity, and temperature. The battery performance at different discharge rates was meticulously examined through cyclic charge/discharge experiments. The convexity of the voltage curve was used to analyse the voltage plateau characteristics at different rates. The findings revealed significant differences in battery performance under varying discharge rates. Higher discharge rates resulted in shorter discharge times and lower battery voltages at corresponding residual capacities. The discharge time, capacity, and voltage during the plateau phase decreased as the discharge rate increased. At discharge rates of 1 C, 3 C, 5 C, 7 C, 9 C, and 11 C, the proportion of discharged battery capacity ranged from 86.45% to 78.42%. At the same time, voltage and temperature variations during the plateau period decreased significantly compared to those before and after discharge. This research provides a crucial reference point for advancing battery design and thermal management systems.

Single-phase static immersion-cooled battery thermal management system with finned heat pipes

Effective thermal management is of critical importance to the performance and safety of lithium-ion batteries. However, research on small and medium-sized battery packs remains scarce. This paper proposes a new immersion cooling method. It combines finned heat pipes with a single-phase static immersion fluid, achieving optimal battery pack homogeneity in existing studies while outperforming the performance of conventional immersion cooling. The method is particularly suitable for energy storage batteries and small and medium-sized battery pack cooling applications. This paper presents a verification of the cooling performance of the cooling method through a combination of simulation analysis and experimental validation. The results demonstrate that the cooling method can enable small and medium-sized battery packs to meet the heat dissipation requirements of 3C or even higher discharge rate under natural convection conditions. In the active cooling scenario, when the battery pack is discharged at a 3C multiplier, the cooling scheme of 9 finned heat pipes can reduce the maximum temperature of the flow-submerged cooled battery pack by 6.4 °C and the maximum temperature difference between cells by 5.3 °C. Even when the battery is discharged at an extreme multiplication rate of 6C, the maximum temperature of the battery pack can be maintained at approximately 60 °C, with a maximum temperature difference between cells of around 15 °C. Based on the aforementioned simulation and experimental results, this paper also validates and analyses the main factors affecting the cooling effect of the method, namely the type of submerged liquid and the number of finned heat pipes.

Noise control tactics to balance the demand for sustainable energy storage, community tranquility, and environmental regulatory compliance

As the construction of large-scale Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) facilities increases in California, their impact on urban sprawl is also becoming more pronounced. Projects involving BESS arrangements increasingly find themselves within or near residential land uses in California, providing greater challenges for noise control and abatement to comply with state and local operational noise thresholds. This paper presents case studies of what Dudek has found to be the most efficient noise control tactics related to lowering the noise emission of BESS facilities, particularly through the implementation of onsite noise walls, direct noise attenuation applied to BESS equipment (i.e., noise attenuation for battery thermal management systems involving the operation of ventilation fans and refrigeration system components), and modified BESS equipment arrangements. These strategies are essential for ensuring that BESS projects are not only compliant with environmental standards but also socially acceptable within residential communities. By presenting practical and efficient noise mitigation techniques, this paper aims to guide planners and developers in the sustainable development of BESS facilities, balancing the demand for energy storage with the preservation of community tranquility and compliance with regulatory noise limits.

Synthetic ester-based forced flow immersion cooling technique for fast discharging lithium-ion battery packs

Rapid advancements in Li-ion battery technology are being made to meet the growing demand for efficient energy storage solutions in electric vehicles and portable electronics. However, heat generation during rapid charging and discharging remains a significant challenge, as it can lead to overheating, fire, and explosion. To address this issue, battery thermal management systems require improvements in cooling strategies. This study aims to optimize the thermal performance of Li-ion battery packs during fast discharge operation by single-phase synthetic ester oil-based forced flow immersion cooling (FFIC) technique. The study analyzes the thermal performance of the FFIC of a 4S2P LIB pack based on various flow rates, pressure drops, and pump power consumption and compares it with various conventional cooling methods and dielectric fluids. The MSMD-based NTGK battery modeling approach is used to analyze the electrical and thermal characteristics of the battery pack at 3C discharge and environmental temperature of 25 °C. The simulation findings revealed that the synthetic ester oil has a superior cooling effect than mineral oil in the 4S2P Li-ion battery pack. The experimental results showed that the synthetic ester-based FFIC Li-ion battery pack achieves an optimal pack temperature of 31.3 °C and uniform temperature distribution at the flow rate of 5 L/min and pressure drop of 228.44 Pa. Moreover, FFIC reduces temperature rise by 51 % compared with natural air convection and 35 % compared with static flow immersion cooling (SFIC) in the 4S2P lithium-ion battery pack. Also, the practical significance of the SEO-based FFIC immersion cooling technique is assessed across extreme climate zones such as −10 °C and 40 °C and determined its superior performance in Li-ion batteries. Hence, this study proved that the FFIC technique is suitable for Li-ion batteries in electric vehicle applications in terms of optimal performance, reliability, and safety during high-current discharge operations.

Machine learning enhanced control co-design optimization of an immersion cooled battery thermal management system

The development of lithium-ion battery technology has ensured that battery thermal management systems are an essential component of the battery pack for next-generation energy storage systems. Using dielectric immersion cooling, researchers have demonstrated the ability to attain high heat transfer rates due to the direct contact between cells and the coolant. However, feedback control has not been widely applied to immersion cooling schemes. Furthermore, current research has not considered battery pack plant design when optimizing feedback control. Uncertainties are inherent in the cooling equipment, resulting in temperature and flow rate fluctuations. Hence, it is crucial to systematically consider these uncertainties during cooling system design to improve the performance and reliability of the battery pack. To fill this gap, we established a reliability-based control co-design optimization framework using machine learning for immersion cooled battery packs. We first developed an experimental setup for 21700 battery immersion cooling, and the experiment data were used to build a high-fidelity multiphysics finite element model. The model can precisely represent the electrical and thermal profile of the battery. We then developed surrogate models based on the finite element simulations in order to reduce computational cost. The reliability-based control co-design optimization was employed to find the best plant and control design for the cooling system, in which an outer optimization loop minimized the cooling system cost while an inner loop ensured battery pack reliability. Finally, an optimal cooling system design was obtained and validated, which showed a 90% saving in cooling system energy consumption.

Research on Experimental and Simulated Temperature Control Performance of Power Batteries Based on Composite Phase Change Materials

The power battery is a key component of electric vehicles and its performance is greatly affected by temperature. Battery thermal management systems based on phase change materials can effectively control the battery temperature and at the same time have the advantages of simple structures, energy savings, and good temperature uniformity, and has broad development prospects. In this paper, expanded graphite–paraffin composite phase change materials were prepared, phase change material cooling experiments were carried out, and a phase change material cooling simulation model was also established using the Fluent software to study the influence of phase change material thermophysical parameters on thermal management performance. The results show that the phase change material thermal management method has excellent cooling performance. The best thermal management performance is achieved at the 3C discharge rate, with a phase change material filling thickness of 4 mm, a melting point of 40 °C above ambient temperature, and a thermal conductivity of 3 W/(m·K). When the phase change latent heat was increased from 150 J/g to 250 J/g, the liquid phase ratio decreased from 0.84 to 0.51, and the subsequent cooling performance was greatly improved, so the phase change latent heat should be increased as much as possible.

Performance of a combined battery thermal management system with dual-layer phase change materials and air cooling technologies

Lithium-ion batteries are increasingly applied in electric vehicles, energy storage and more. In order to ensure its stable operation under different ambient temperature, an innovative battery thermal management system (BTMS) based on phase change material (PCM) has the dual-layer PCMs arrangement is proposed in this research. To prove the effectiveness of this structure, the temperature variation of lithium-ion battery 18,650 with single PCM and dual-layer PCMs arrangement is calculated and compared by numerical simulation. The findings reveal that the dual-layer PCMs arrangement proposed in this paper has better environmental adaptability at different ambient temperatures (Tamb). When the Tamb is 20 °C and the discharge rate increases from 1C to 5C, the maximum temperature (Tmax) of the battery under the dual-layer PCMs arrangement is 25.33 °C, 30.80 °C, 33.58 °C, 35.80 °C, 39.07 °C, respectively. And in response to the high ambient temperature and high discharge rate, the dual-layer PCMs layout is combined with air cooling to form a hybrid BTMS. The results show that Tmax of the hybrid BTMS is reduced by 21.5 % compared with the PCM-based BTMS when the Tamb is 40 °C and the discharge rate is 3C. The proposed hybrid BTMS with dual-layer PCMs structure controls the Tmax of the battery pack well and the temperature uniformity is also maintained within acceptable level, which has great application potential in battery thermal management.

Investigation of the effects of different nanoparticle-reinforced liquids on the cooling performance of the battery thermal management system

Investigation of the effects of different nanoparticle-reinforced liquids on the cooling performance of the battery thermal management system

A Precise Temperature Control Method for Lithium-ion Battery Pack based on the Nonlinear Model Predictive Control Algorithm

Abstract To utilize the maximum performance of the battery while ensuring its thermal safety, a battery thermal management system is used to control the battery maximum temperature within a safe range. This paper centres on the establishment of a temperature prediction model and the development of the nonlinear-based model predictive control (MPC) strategy. First, to address the need of predicting battery temperature, this paper develops a distributed parameter thermal resistance model to predict battery temperature quickly and accurately. Secondly, the open-loop formulation of the nonlinear-based MPC is derived based on the established state space equations. Then the soft and hard constraints of the model are established based on the actual current conditions, pump conditions, temperature difference and temperature rise indexes, so as to establish the objective function of the MPC algorithm. Finally, the established temperature nonlinear MPC algorithm is embedded on the board and the hardware platform of battery liquid cooling system is established. The experiment test result shows that the maximum error of temperature control is less than 0.1°C, and the effectiveness of the temperature control strategy of lithium-ion battery is verified through experiments.

Mechanical vibration's effect on thermal management module of Li-ion battery module based on phase change material (PCM) in a high-temperature environment

PCM-based systems play a crucial role in managing the thermal conditions of electric vehicle (EV) battery modules, a critical aspect in ensuring their optimal performance. However, an often overlooked facet in current research is the impact of mechanical vibration on EV battery modules during real-world driving scenarios. Addressing this gap, the current article takes a pioneering approach, drawing inspiration from the groundbreaking study by Du and Chen in 2023. This study delves into the effects of mechanical vibration on a PCM-based Battery Thermal Management System (BTMS) specifically adapted for battery modules operating in high-temperature environments. The results, shedding light on a previously underestimated factor, unveil the remarkable ability of mechanical vibration to ameliorate the surge in temperature within the battery module, particularly under high discharge rates. An unprecedented revelation surfaces as mechanical vibration emerges as a factor influencing the thickness of the encapsulated PCM, offering a unique avenue for augmenting the energy density of the powertrain. In this challenging thermal environment, mechanical vibration fosters temperature uniformity among batteries and curtails heat accumulation within the battery module. Remarkably, when the vibration amplitude surpasses a critical threshold, the impact of amplitude variations becomes negligible. Moreover, the intricate relationship between vibration frequency and temperature change complicates the scenario, with medium to high frequencies demonstrating a propensity to enhance the management system's overall thermal performance. These groundbreaking findings transcend the theoretical realm, offering tangible insights with immense implications for practical design and application. By recognizing and harnessing the potential benefits of mechanical vibration, engineers and designers can optimize BTMS, paving the way for more efficient and resilient EV battery modules.

Two-Phase Cooling System for Electric Vehicle Battery Based on a 3D Pulsating Heat Pipe

The primary objective pursued in this research is the creation and thorough evaluation of an inventive cooling system designed to uphold optimal temperatures within the batteries employed in electric vehicles. Nowadays, the prevailing equipment underpinning electrical motion hinges on Lithium-Ion cells. These cells frequently necessitate the expeditious delivery of substantial power, thereby giving rise to a consequential generation of heat. Consequently, there is an emergence of elevated operational temperatures, potentially causing noteworthy declines in battery performance, or, in extreme cases, operational failures. Furthermore, deviating from the recommended temperature range (20–40 °C) significantly expedites the aging process of the battery and elevates the probability of premature malfunction. In response to these crucial challenges, the implementation of a battery thermal management system assumes a pivotal role in maximizing battery efficiency. Within the framework of this investigation, we propose the adoption of a cooling system founded on a three-dimensional pulsating heat pipe as the designated thermal management technology for a battery pack. The preliminary phase of our study involved the assessment of the suggested pulsating heat pipe’s performance. Following this, the efficacy of the pulsating heat pipe is subjected to rigorous scrutiny through practical experimentation on an authentic electric battery. The empirical findings conclusively highlight the substantial cooling capacity of the proposed system, thereby presenting a robust and efficacious solution for the thermal management challenges faced by electric vehicle batteries.

Startup characteristics of a water loop heat pipe with dual heat sources for battery thermal management system in electric vehicle

Abstract The usage of electric vehicles has significantly reduced emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants. However, the high heat release generated by the electric vehicle batteries poses a challenge. To solve this problem, scientists have created a passive cooling thermal management system specifically for electric vehicle based on heat pipes, particularly loop heat pipes. A battery pack often consists of several battery modules, which results in multiple heat sources being dispersed according to their power capacity. Startup behavior of loop heat pipe has been investigated extensively in the literature. However, most of the studies use only one heat source. This paper aims to fill the research gap, particularly when the system is implemented in dual heat sources managed by only one evaporator. To achieve the research objectives, a custom loop heat pipe was constructed. This cooling system’s design is briefly described. The evaporator is made of copper, deionized water was selected as the working fluid because of its high merit number, which indicates strong performance as a heat pipe working fluid and the stainless-steel wire mesh serves as the porous wick. Battery simulator was built using aluminum material and a cartridge heater to mimic the heat produced by the battery. Two case studies were done. First, only one battery simulator was used. Second, two battery simulators were placed on both sides of the evaporator. A type-K thermocouple attached to the NI DAQ 9214 module was used to measure the temperature while the electric heat load varied between 10 W and 50 W. The study investigated the interaction between the heat load distribution and the startup behavior of the loop heat pipe. Startup behavior is crucial for the performance of the loop heat pipe. Based on the experimental results, the loop heat pipe demonstrates outstanding startup performance. It can effectively initiate operation even at a minimal heat load as low as 30 W for the first and second case study. The findings of the study indicate that the dual heat source arrangement effectively mitigates overshoot temperatures and enhances heat transfer performance by increasing the contact area.

Thermal management of lithium-ion batteries with direct and counter flow channels: A comparative study of different cooling fluids

The study addresses the crucial issue of thermal management in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and the maintenance of safe operational temperatures. It emphasizes the importance of efficient cooling mechanisms in preventing damage. A comparative analysis was conducted to assess the impact of various cooling fluids on the thermal performance of LIBs using direct and counter fluid flow channels. The study involved the use of different cooling fluids including water, water-glycol, Novec7000, mineral oil, and silicon oil. The researchers examined temperature variation, surface Stanton number (SN), surface Nusselt number (Nu), surface heat transfer coefficient (HTC), battery surface temperature, and pressure drop to evaluate the battery cooling process with different cooling configurations. The battery cooling part proved highly effective in managing heat, achieving a significant maximum temperature reduction of 30.70 % and 37.43 % for direct and counter flow channels, respectively. The Nu values of various fluids showed notable differences, with water-glycol showing a 3.76 % increase, Novec 7000 with an 11.39 % increase, mineral oil with a 15.46 % improvement, and silicon oil with a 20.09 % increase. The HTC values in the direct flow channel proved a consistent decrease from 16.09 to 57.73 to 11.07–25.69 W/m2K, respectively. Similarly, the HTC values for the counter flow channel ranged from 15.88 to 55.38 to 11.07–25.69 W/m2K. Additionally, it was seen that silicon oil outperformed other cooling fluids with a 6.0 % improvement in HTC in both direct flow and counter flow channels. The SN showed increases of 17.34 %, 20.11 %, 26.76 %, 29.57 %, and 29.60 %, respectively, at all five liquid flow velocities through the direct channel, and 19.39 %, 22.18 %, 28.34 %, 36.58 %, and 37.64 %, respectively, through the counter flow channel. These findings clearly show the superior heat transfer capabilities of silicon oil compared to other coolants. However, it is important to note that the use of silicon oil also resulted in a lower pressure drop, a critical consideration for ensuring efficient cooling. These findings have significant implications for the advancement of battery thermal management systems for electric vehicles, as designers can optimize the cooling process by considering different cooling configurations to enhance the thermal performance of battery packs while ensuring safe and stable operation.

Optimization and working performance analysis of liquid cooling plates in refrigerant direct cooling power battery systems

Refrigerant direct cooling is currently being considered as an efficient thermal management technology in power battery systems. In this paper, four types of liquid cooling plates for power battery modules are designed and the computational model is constructed. With the model being validated, it is applied to analyze the effects of the cooling plate structure and cooling channel on the cooling and heat dissipation performances. The results reveal that for the conventional cooling method, i.e., when the cooling plate is placed on the bottom of the battery pack, a significant temperature gradient in the vertical direction is observed. On the contrary, adopting a serpentine cooling plate structure in the main wall or parallel cooling channels in the narrow side wall could significantly reduce the temperature difference of the battery pack, which can keep the temperature difference within 5 °C even under extreme conditions. Further, a detailed analysis of the heat dissipation performance based on the optimal cooling plate structure is performed to determine the safe operating range of the battery pack. It is shown that as the humidity is less than 0.73 and the evaporation temperature is below 15.43 °C, the battery pack can operate safely. However, beyond this condition range the heat dissipation characteristics of the battery pack cannot satisfy the operating requirements. This work sheds light upon the potential of refrigerant direct cooling strategy in power battery thermal management systems by properly arranging the cooling plate.

Machine learning assisted multi-objective design optimization for battery thermal management system

The rapid expansion of the electric vehicle (EV) industry necessitates the development of advanced battery thermal management systems (BTMSs) to safeguard the cyclic properties and security of lithium-ion batteries. However, the assessment of the performance of BTMS often overlooks the importance of considering not only the thermal regulation effectiveness on batteries but also its own energy efficiency. This study investigated the synergistic effects of BTMS design and control strategies on both thermal performance and energy utilization of its own. A multiphysics-based model was developed, featuring an 18,650 Lithium-ion battery module with curved cooling channels, to systematically evaluate the impact of cooling channel width and warping angle, inlet coolant temperature and velocity, and charging rate on system performance and efficiency. To further expedite the design optimization process, a Gaussian process (GP)-based surrogate model was implemented. An uncertainty quantification analysis was subsequently performed to validate the robustness of the optimized designs against stochastic variations. The findings indicate that the channel width and coolant velocity play a pivotal role in enhancing BTMS efficiency. Through a rigorous multi-objective optimization process, the energy efficiency was improved by 126 %, while maintaining battery temperatures below 28.4 °C and coolant pressure drops under 3.6 kPa. The integration of multiphysics simulation and machine learning assisted optimization technique represents a pioneering step forward in the development of sophisticated and efficient BTMS solutions for future electric vehicles.

Expression of Concern for article entitled “Investigation of heat transfer, melting and solidification of phase change material in battery thermal management system based on blades height”

Expression of Concern for article entitled “Investigation of heat transfer, melting and solidification of phase change material in battery thermal management system based on blades height”

Diatom-based biomass composites phase change materials with high thermal conductivity for battery thermal management

Battery thermal management systems (BTMs) are a significant strategy for controlling the operating temperature of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) used in electric vehicles (EVs). A promising approach for mitigating the risk of battery exceeding the highest operating temperature is the utilization of composite phase change materials (CPCMs) in BTMs, which have the potential to be applied in EVs. In this study, a vacuum impregnation process was employed to prepare the biomass-based CPCMs (PPE-0, PPE-10, PPE-30 and PPE-50), consisting of diatomite as a supporting matrix, expanded graphite (EG) as an additive, and polyethylene glycol (PEG) as the phase change media. The PPE-10 exhibits an enhancement of melting enthalpy (116.81 J/g) and crystalline enthalpy (118.44 J/g). Meanwhile, the thermal conductivity of PPE-10 is 1.203 W/m·K, which is higher than PEG and PPE-0 by 4.02 times and 2.18 times, respectively. Furthermore, the battery modules with prepared CPCMs were carried out the charge and discharge processes at 1C and 2C discharge rates. The results illustrate that the battery modules with PPE-10 show excellent thermal management capability, which maintains the temperature below 60 °C during a 2C discharge rate. Consequently, this study provides a novel insight into developing biomass-based CPCMs with high thermal conductivity to enhance the safety of battery modules in EVs.

Numerical investigation of module-level inhomogeneous ageing in lithium-ion batteries from temperature gradients and electrical connection topologies

The distribution of current/voltage can be further regulated by optimising the electrical connection topology, considering a particular battery thermal management systems. This study numerically investigates a 4P6S battery module with two connection topologies: 1) a straight connection topology, where the sub-modules consist of parallel-connected cells that are serial connected in a linear configuration, and 2) a parallelogram connection topology, where the sub-modules are serial connected in a parallelogram configuration. We find that the straight topology is more advantageous, as it allows the temperature gradient to be distributed among the parallel-connected cells in the sub-modules, mitigating over(dis)charging. Consequently, it achieves a 0.8% higher effective capacity than the parallelogram topology at 1C discharge, along with a higher state of health at 80.15% compared to 80% for the parallelogram topology. Notably, the straight topology results in a maximum current maldistribution of 0.24C at 1C discharge, which is considered an acceptable trade-off.

Comparative analysis of R290 and R1234yf cooling performance in offset strip-fin plate heat exchanger for electric-vehicle battery thermal management

This study compares the performances of two-phase refrigerant cooling (TPRC) using two refrigerants, namely R290 and R1234yf, in battery thermal management systems. A compact and energy-efficient brazed plate heat exchanger with an offset strip fin is employed as a cold-plate evaporator and experiments are conducted to examine its heat-transfer characteristics. Key performance parameters including the heat-transfer coefficient (HTC), pressure drop (PD), and wall temperature (Tw) are assessed at discharge rates (C-rates) of 1, 1.25, and 1.5C, saturation temperatures (Tsat) of 16 °C and 20 °C, the mass flux of 50 kg/m2s, and inlet vapor-quality values of 0.1–0.8. The results show that R290 offers a higher HTC and lower PD for all C-rates compared with R1234yf for Tsat = 16 °C and 20 °C. The HTC increases by 107%–113% for 1.5–1C at Tsat = 16 °C, and 84% (1.5 and 1C) and 70% (1.25C) at 20 °C. Similarly, the PD decreases by 6.7%–10.1% for 1–1.5C at Tsat = 16 °C and approximately 10% for all C-rates at 20 °C. Compared with R1234yf, R290 maintains a Tw that is 1.1 °C and 0.7 °C lower at Tsat = 16 °C and 20 °C, respectively. Results of critical heat transfer coefficient (CHTC) analysis confirm that R290 performs better than R1234yf at Tsat = 16 °C in terms of HTC increment and Tw reduction and that the critical HTC of R290 is higher than that of R1234yf by 80% and 40% for Tsat = 16 °C and 20 °C, respectively. Additionally, using R290 instead of R1234yf in the TPRC system yields a higher level of cooling efficiency at vapor-quality values of 0.4–0.5. In addition, an artificial neural network model is used to predict the experimental results, where a root-mean-square error of 2.3%–3.5% is indicated. Using this trained model, the HTC and PD are predicated at intermediate C-rates (1.1–1.4C) and the results are discussed.