Battery Thermal Management System Research Articles

Energy Sources and Battery Thermal Energy Management Technologies for Electrical Vehicles: A Technical Comprehensive Review

Electric vehicles are increasingly seen as a viable alternative to conventional combustion-engine vehicles, offering advantages such as lower emissions and enhanced energy efficiency. The critical role of batteries in EVs drives the need for high-performance, cost-effective, and safe solutions, where thermal management is key to ensuring optimal performance and longevity. This study is motivated by the need to address the limitations of current battery thermal management systems (BTMS), particularly the effectiveness of cooling methods in maintaining safe operating temperatures. The hypothesis is that immersion cooling offers superior thermal regulation compared to the widely used indirect liquid cooling approach. Using MATLAB Simulink, this research investigates the dynamic thermal behaviour of three cooling systems, including air cooling, indirect liquid cooling, and immersion cooling, by comparing their performance with an uncooled battery. The results show that immersion cooling outperforms indirect liquid cooling in terms of temperature control and safety, providing a more efficient solution. These findings challenge the existing literature, positioning immersion cooling as the optimal BTMS. The main contribution of this paper lies in its comprehensive evaluation of cooling technologies and its validation of immersion cooling as a superior method for enhancing EV battery performance.

Recent Progress on Air, Liquid, PCM, Heat Pipe, and Hybrid Modes of Thermal Management in Lithium-Ion Batteries

This study emphasises lithium-ion batteries, which have been the subject of extensive research due to their wide range of benefits, including extended life cycle, minimal discharge, and high energy density. However, the temperature sensitivity of the batteries presents a notable obstacle that can negatively impact their performance and longevity when operating under extreme conditions. To overcome this challenge, implementing an effective battery thermal management system (BTMS) is imperative. Battery thermal management is crucial for ensuring the safety and longevity of lithium-ion batteries, especially in high-demand applications like electric vehicles. This comprehensive review explores a variety of BTMS technologies, including air-cooling methods, liquid-cooling techniques, heat pipes, and PCM materials. While air-cooled BTMS is a safe and straightforward design, its lower heat capacity and thermal efficiency limit its use to low-capacity batteries. However, forced air-cooled BTMS is an excellent solution for high charging/discharging rates, as air flows through channels within the battery packs to optimize cooling. Liquid-cooled BTMS also shows promise, although designers must ensure the sealing cover is secure to prevent leaks. Heat pipes (HP) offer a unique approach to controlling battery temperature, while Phase change materials (PCM) thermal management is notable for its ability to absorb significant heat by latent heat. Hybrid cooling combines fins, nanofluids, PCM, and microchannels-based cooling and can significantly enhance battery performance under high charging/discharging rates. Furthermore, lithium-ion batteries are extensively used in various applications, including the Electric vehicle industry. Keeping the lithium-ion battery temperature within the optimal range is important and is accomplished by a suitable BTMS. Different methods, such as air cooling, Liquid cooling, Heat pipe, and PCM materials, are used in BTMS. An effective thermal management system and efficient battery model are absolutely necessary. Each of the techniques in BTMS has its own benefits and drawbacks. The effectiveness of thermal management configurations and methods can vary. Thus, evaluating performance and optimal configuration is crucial before implementation.

Performance enhancement for a novel cylindrical system Li‐ion battery with MXene‐based dielectric fluid for immersion cooling

AbstractThis research looks at the impact of dielectric fluids and fluid speeds on cell temperature control in innovative cylindrical lithium‐ion batteries during high‐rate discharges (C‐rate) using the multiscale multidomain battery model. The goal is to improve the battery thermal management system to increase battery performance, longevity, and safety. The present study includes reducing thermal strains, enhancing efficacy, and forestalling overheating risks across various applications in electrified systems. The assessment focuses on four dielectric fluids—ester, mineral, kerosene, and Novec 7200—flowing at 0.01 m/s to gauge their efficiency in managing cell temperatures. Results demonstrate the criticality of effective thermal management in maintaining optimal battery performance and longevity. Ester oil emerges as the most efficient coolant, maintaining cell temperatures at 305.84 K and showcasing a 44% reduction compared with scenarios without coolant. In contrast, kerosene oil, mineral oil, and Novec 7200 yield temperature reductions of 42.86%, 42.51%, and 43.11%, respectively. Furthermore, combining 1% v/v. MXene nanoparticles with ester oil enhance cooling capabilities, with remarkable cell temperature reductions of 50% at 0.01 m/s velocity. Subsequent increments in flow velocity lead to enhanced cooling effects: at 0.05 and 0.1 m/s, reductions reach 51.89% and 52.155%, escalating to 52.58% and 54% at 0.5 and 1.0 m/s, correspondingly.

Recent Advancements and Future Prospects in Lithium‐Ion Battery Thermal Management Techniques

ABSTRACTLithium‐ion batteries (LiBs) are the leading choice for powering electric vehicles due to their advantageous characteristics, including low self‐discharge rates and high energy and power density. However, the degradation in the performance and sustainability of lithium‐ion battery packs over the long term in electric vehicles is affected due to the elevated temperatures induced by charge and discharge cycles. Moreover, the thermal runaway (TR) issues due to the heat generated during the electrochemical reactions are the most significant safety concern for LiBs, as inadequate heat dissipation can be potentially hazardous, leading to explosions and fires. Considering the safety of EVs and for better performance, understanding the mechanism of TR is of paramount importance. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the TR phenomenon and underlying electrochemical principles governing heat accumulation during charge and discharge cycles. Furthermore, the article explores the cell modeling and thermal management techniques intended for both individual lithium‐ion battery cells and larger battery packs, with a particular emphasis on enhancing fire prevention and safety measures. The main goal of this review paper is to offer new insights to the developing battery community, assisting in the development of efficient battery thermal management systems (BTMS) using enhanced cooling methodologies. This article could also support the advancement of next‐generation electric vehicle battery packs equipped with built‐in safety features to improve the cycle life of LiBs and prevent thermal runaway accidents.

Experimental and numerical investigations of liquid cooling plates for pouch lithium-ion batteries considering non-uniform heat generation

Ensuring the thermal safety of lithium-ion batteries requires efficient and reliable thermal management systems. However, the non-uniform heat generation of lithium-ion batteries results in uneven temperature distribution, which complicates the comprehension of the flow pattern design and operating parameter optimization in liquid-based battery thermal management, especially under extreme conditions. This study evaluates the thermal management performance of four classic liquid cooling plate designs for pouch batteries by considering their non-uniform heat generation through the electrochemical-thermal coupled model. Through experiment and numerical simulation, the optimal flow pattern is identified. Subsequently, the capability of the thermal management system, utilizing the best flow design, is further assessed under varying operating conditions. The results indicate that while a higher flow rate marginally enhances cooling, the coolant inlet temperature exerts a more substantial impact on the cooling performance. In addition, the recommended parameter settings for cell-level liquid cooling systems are outlined under extreme conditions. With a 5 C discharge rate and an initial temperature of 35 °C, the recommended coolant temperature range and coolant flow rate range are 20–30 °C and 60–100 mL min−1, respectively. As a typical example of computer-aided engineering, this study reveals the impact of battery non-uniform heat generation on battery temperature performance and provides a critical reference for the optimization of liquid-based battery thermal management systems.

Multi-objective optimization of a novel hybrid battery thermal management system using response surface method

This study evaluates the thermal performance of a Z-type battery thermal management system (BTMS) designed for nine lithium-ion batteries discharged at a high rate of 5C, using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations. The investigation employs Response Surface Methodology (RSM) to optimize two critical thermal performance parameters: the maximum battery temperature (Tmax) and the maximum temperature difference between cells (ΔTmax). Various cooling strategies are explored to comprehensively assess the BTMS, including natural convection, forced convection, cooling fins, phase change material (PCM), and composite PCM. These methods are analyzed to determine their effectiveness in controlling the thermal behavior of the battery pack. The simulation results indicate that integrating different cooling techniques can significantly lower Tmax from 352.38 K to 309.14 K and reduce ΔTmax from 14.6 K to 3.31 K, depending on the method used. Under critical conditions, such as the failure of the active cooling system, the BTMS still maintained a Tmax of 310.64 K and a ΔTmax of 0.95 K, demonstrating its robustness and reliability. Further optimization identified the ideal configuration for the system, including an inlet air speed of 1.2 m/s, an inlet temperature of 297.15 K, and a PCM thickness of 3.8 mm, achieving optimal thermal performance with a Tmax of 303.97 K and ΔTmax of 3.17 K. This study offers valuable insights into the design and optimization of effective BTMS for enhanced battery safety and longevity.

Thermal management optimization strategy for lithium-ion battery based on phase change material and fractal fin

In order to solve the problem of temperature control of lithium-ion battery (LB) in electric vehicles, a new battery thermal management system (BTMS) based on phase change material (PCM) coupled fractal fin (FF) was proposed. The effects of latent heat, thickness, and thermal conductivity of PCM (paraffin) on the thermal properties of BTMS were investigated. Subsequently, the fin structure was added to the BTMS to improve the heat transfer capacity, and the number of fins, aspect ratio, material and structure morphology were explored. The results show that when the latent heat of PCM is 200 kJ/kg, the thickness is 2 cm, and the thermal conductivity is 0.8 W/(m·K), the temperature of LB is 34.9 K lower than that of LB without the BTMS at 4C. In addition, the BTMS has the best performance when FF-II with a fin count of 5, aspect ratio of 7:1, and material of carbon steel are used. The temperatures of LB are 301.8 K, 303.9 K, 305.4 K, and 307.3 K at 1 to 4C, respectively, and the temperature difference in BTMS can be controlled within 2.5 K. This study provides some guidance for the optimization of BTMS.

A novel hybrid battery thermal management system using TPMS structure and delayed cooling scheme

Phase change material (PCM) cooling plays an important role in battery thermal management systems (BTMS). However, PCM has been suffering from low thermal conductivity and inefficient latent heat recovery. Based on this, this study designs a hybrid BTMS combining triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS), PCM, and liquid cooling, and proposes a cooling scheme that determines the operating time of the coolant based on the battery temperature. The system aims to improve the utilization of PCM in two different ways: structural design and cooling scheme. Numerical analysis was used to compare the effects of different structures on the melting rate of PCM and to study the thermal performance of the battery module under various cooling schemes. The results show that the effective thermal conductivity of PCM/TPMS composites reaches 21 W/(m·K), which can effectively enhance the heat absorption rate of PCM. In particular, the I-graph-and-wrapped-package (IWP) structure combined with PCM is the most effective. Under the continuous cooling scheme, when the coolant flow rate is 0.04 m/s, the temperature of the battery at a 3C discharge rate can be controlled at 308.28 K, but the PCM utilization rate is only 0.25. After adopting the delayed cooling scheme, the performance of the BTMS cooling remains excellent, with the battery temperature at only 309.88 K and the liquid phase rate of PCM reaching 0.97. For the first time, the heat absorbed by passive cooling is comparable to that of active cooling in the BTMS heat absorption energy distribution, with a 73 % reduction in pumping energy consumption. Furthermore, under cycling conditions, the delayed cooling scheme still performs well, recovering all the latent heat from PCM and keeping the battery temperature below 313.15 K. In addition, it should be noted that the flow rate of the coolant should be determined by the charging rate. Additionally, the BTMS is capable of addressing the heat dissipation challenges in different ambient temperatures. This study can guide for the design of PCM in hybrid BTMS.

Thermal management system for prismatic lithium-ion batteries coupling with U-type channels and pyrolytic graphite honeycomb fins

The battery thermal management system (BTMS) is crucial for the safety and lifespan of electric vehicles. This paper proposes a hybrid BTMS combining liquid cooling plates arranged on the side and pyrolytic graphite honeycomb fins (PGHF). The cold plate contains two U-type channels with staggered inlets, and the phase change material (PCM) is filled in the honeycomb fins. The internal resistance and entropic coefficient of the battery are obtained experimentally and used to model the battery’s heat production. The heat dissipation capabilities of six different BTMS are compared at a discharge rate of 3C. Compared with traditional serpentine cold plate cooling, the designed BTMS reduces the maximum temperature, maximum temperature difference, and pressure drop by 5.32 K, 6.82 K, and 462.94 Pa, respectively, indicating significant improvements in cooling performance and substantial reductions in system power consumption. In this paper, the effects of different inlet mass flow rates and honeycomb fin porosity on the heat dissipation of the system are investigated to determine their optimal values. Results indicate that when the mass flow rate is 1.0 g∙s−1 and the honeycomb fin porosity is 45.68 %, the maximum temperature of the battery is 310.38 K, the maximum temperature difference is 1.82 K, and the pressure drop is 279.35 Pa, which represents the optimal cooling performance.

Thermal uniformity analysis of a hybrid battery pack using integrated phase change material, metal foam, and counterflow minichannels

This study investigates the thermal performance and temperature uniformity of a hybrid battery thermal management system (BTMS) that integrates phase change material (PCM), metal foam, and minichannels. Computational fluid dynamics is used to model the PCM melting process and heat transfer between all components. The primary goal of the work is to investigate BTMS architectures which can enhance thermal uniformity and prevent critical temperature rise in a high-voltage battery pack under fast discharging and real-world driving cycle. Four BTMS designs are compared. The design that integrates PCM, metal foam, and counterflow minichannels is shown to have the best performance. At low pumping power (coolant Reynolds number Re = 10), this design reduces the peak battery temperature by 11.5 K compared to a design employing pure PCM only. This configuration also ensures a temperature difference of less than 5 K among individual battery cells, addressing thermal safety considerations and extending battery lifespan. Further analysis revealed that the inclusion of metal foam delays PCM melting, enhances both system and battery thermal uniformity, and offers a higher performance-to-weight ratio compared to designs without metal foam. Although wavy-shaped minichannels offer minimal temperature improvement (0.3 K) over straight minichannels, their higher cost and increased pumping power requirements do not justify their practicality. Under both fast discharging and real driving conditions, the first design with pure PCM provides uniform heat distribution within batteries but fails to maintain the maximum battery temperature within the optimal range. Overall, this study highlights the effectiveness of the proposed hybrid BTMS design in providing uniform temperature distribution and maintaining the maximum battery temperature within the optimal range under harsh environmental conditions, fast discharging, and the Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule (UDDS) drive cycle.

Comparing different battery thermal management systems for suppressing thermal runaway propagation

Thermal runaway (TR) stands as a critical risk in battery applications. Even though various battery thermal management systems (BTMSs) have been proposed to mitigate thermal runaway propagation, a comprehensive comparison remains elusive. This study evaluates the performance of three types of BTMSs with 5 configurations, which include: liquid cooling with cold plates added on the bottom (BTMS-1a), liquid cooling with cold plates added on the sides (BTMS-1b), liquid cooling with cold plates added between batteries (BTMS-1c), integrating thermal insulation materials between batteries (BTMS-2), and implementing phase change materials between batteries (BTMS-3). The highest temperature, propagation time, temperature uniformity, cooling rate, mass energy density, and volume energy density are used as key performance indicators for comparison. In general, BTMS-2 and BTMS-3 show advantages in energy density, however, their performances on TR suppression and battery thermal management are poor. BTMS-1c can suppress TR effectively at high flowrates, whereas it can lead to poor temperature uniformity. Suggestions are also provided regarding the selection of BTMSs for different applications: BTMS-1b, BTMS-1c, and BTMS-3 are recommended for small EVs, large EVs and large scale battery energy storage systems (BESSs), and small BESSs, respectively.

Artificial Neural Networks-Based Multi-Objective Optimization of İmmersion Cooling Battery Thermal Management System Using Hammersley Sampling Method

Artificial Neural Networks-Based Multi-Objective Optimization of İmmersion Cooling Battery Thermal Management System Using Hammersley Sampling Method

An experimental and comparative study on passive and active PCM cooling of a battery with/out copper mesh and investigation of PCM mixtures

The carbon emission contribution to global warming accelerated both research on and transition to electric vehicles (EVs). Drivers demand high power, fast acceleration and less charging times. All these demands require high C rate charging/discharging demands from batteries. The rate of heat generation is exponentially proportional to C rates which decreases battery lifetime and may lead to thermal runaway. However, a battery thermal management system decreases thermal runaway risk and decelerates battery degradation via controlling battery temperature. In this paper, we first document the thermal conductivity enhancement via copper foam into phase change material (PCM) domain to uncover their possible use in EV thermal management applications. Maximum 15.93 times increment is achieved with a specific copper foam. Then, physical properties and behaviors of distinct PCM mixtures are documented. Homogeneity of mixtures is associated with the chemistry of PCMs and the mixture melting point is proportional to the volume weighted average of melting temperatures. The results document that the PCM with relatively lower melting point is beneficial when end of discharge temperatures considered, except for high discharge rate of 2C. Temperature uniformity across the battery increases with relatively higher melting point PCM. Experiments also document that the amount of PCM volume lost via insertion of copper foam yields higher end of discharge temperatures. Overall, both PCM and copper foam enhances temperature homogeneity and their benefit becomes more sensible during drive cycles relative to continuous charge/discharge use cases.

Computer Aided Analysis of Phase Change Material [PCM] Based Battery Thermal Management System

Computer Aided Analysis of Phase Change Material [PCM] Based Battery Thermal Management System

Numerical Analysis of a Two-Layer PCM Based Battery Thermal Management System for Different Material Properties

The design and numerical analysis of the two-layer PCM (Phase Change Material)-based thermal management system for a 18650-type lithium-ion battery have been performed. In relation to simulation, the coefficient of thermal conductivity and melting temperature of the first layer of PCMs are varied. Other parameters are made identical to that of the next layer's parameters in order that the generation of two different layers of PCMs can be attained: PCM-1 and PCM-2. To obtain a more realistic approach in the numerical analysis, the battery thermal model was created in the COMSOL-MATLAB interface using the experimental internal resistance data obtained for 18650 type Li-ion batteries in the literature. While a cheaper and more accessible material with a thermal conductivity of 0.2 W/mK and a melting point of 50 °C was used in the PCM-2 layer, the thermal conductivity was changed to 0.2; 1 and 5 W/mK in the PCM-1 layer; and the melting point was changed to 30, 40 and 50 °C. In this way, for PCM layers with different thickness (tpcm), the system was optimized at two different discharge rates, 5C and 7C. As a result of the numerical analysis, it was determined that the optimum tpcm, kpcm,1 and Tm values for the 5C discharge rate were 2 mm, 0.2 W/mK and 40 °C, respectively; and the optimum tpcm, kpcm,1 and Tm values for the 7C discharge rate were 4 mm, 5 W/mK and 40 °C, respectively.

A Review on Advanced Battery Thermal Management Systems for Fast Charging in Electric Vehicles

To protect the environment and reduce dependence on fossil fuels, the world is shifting towards electric vehicles (EVs) as a sustainable solution. The development of fast charging technologies for EVs to reduce charging time and increase operating range is essential to replace traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are efficient energy storage systems in EVs. However, the efficiency of LIBs depends significantly on their working temperature range. However, the huge amount of heat generated during fast charging increases battery temperature uncontrollably and may lead to thermal runaway, which poses serious hazards during the operation of EVs. In addition, fast charging with high current accelerates battery aging and seriously reduces battery capacity. Therefore, an effective and advanced battery thermal management system (BTMS) is essential to ensure the performance, lifetime, and safety of LIBs, particularly under extreme charging conditions. In this perspective, the current review presents the state-of-the-art thermal management strategies for LIBs during fast charging. The serious thermal problems owing to heat generated during fast charging and its impacts on LIBs are discussed. The core part of this review presents advanced cooling strategies such as indirect liquid cooling, immersion cooling, and hybrid cooling for the thermal management of batteries during fast charging based on recently published research studies in the period of 2019–2024 (5 years). Finally, the key findings and potential directions for next-generation BTMSs toward fast charging are proposed. This review offers an in-depth analysis by providing recommendations and potential solutions to develop reliable and efficient BTMSs for LIBs during fast charging.

Modelling Analysis of Propylene Glycol as a Cooling Media for Battery Thermal Management System in Electric Vehicles

Modelling Analysis of Propylene Glycol as a Cooling Media for Battery Thermal Management System in Electric Vehicles

Cooling Performance of a Nano Phase Change Material Emulsions-Based Liquid Cooling Battery Thermal Management System for High-Capacity Square Lithium-Ion Batteries

This study investigated the application of nanophase change material emulsions (NPCMEs) for thermal management in high-capacity ternary lithium-ion batteries. We formulated an NPCME of n-octadecane (n-OD) and n-eicosane (n-E) with a mass fraction of 10%, whose phase change temperatures are 25.5 °C and 32.5 °C, respectively, with specific heat capacities 2.1 and 2.4 times greater than water. Experiments were conducted to evaluate the thermal control performance and latent heat utilization efficiency of these NPCMEs. The NPCMEs with an n-OD mass fraction of 10% (NPCME-n-OD), particularly reduced the battery pack’s maximum temperature and temperature difference to 41.6 °C and 3.72 °C under a 2 C discharge rate, lower than the water-cooled group by 1.3 °C and 0.3 °C. This suggests that nano emulsions with phase change temperatures close to ambient temperatures exhibit superior cooling performance. Increased flow rates from 50 mL/min to 75 mL/min significantly lowered temperatures, resulting in temperature reductions of 2.73 °C for the NPCME-n-OD group and 3.37 °C for the NPCME-n-E group. However, the latent heat utilization efficiency of the nano emulsions decreased, leading to increased system energy consumption. Also, it was found that the inlet temperature of the NPCMEs was very important for good thermal management. The right inlet temperatures make it easier to use phase change latent heat, while excessively high temperatures may make thermal management less effective.

A Battery Thermal Management System Integrating Immersion Preheating and Immersion Cooling.

The battery thermal management system (BTMS) depending upon immersion fluid has received huge attention. However, rare reports have been focused on integrating the preheating and cooling functions on the immersion BTMS. Herein, we design a BTMS integrating immersion cooling and immersion preheating for all climates and investigate the impact of key factors on the preheating/cooling performance. For the preheating mode, adopting an inlet flow rate of 2 L·min-1, an inlet temperature of 15 °C, and a preheating time of 600 s is optimal by considering both heating performance and energy efficiency under a low ambient temperature (T a) of -20 °C. The corresponding minimum temperature, average temperature, maximum temperature difference (ΔT max), and rate of temperature rise could achieve 11.81 °C, 14.1 °C, 3.18, and 3.18 °C·min-1, respectively. For the cooling mode, the immersion BTMS could effectively control the ΔT max and maximum temperature of the battery module below 3.08 and 28.48 °C, and 3.21 and 28.5 °C at a high-rate discharge of 3 C under a normal T a of 25 °C and a high T a of 40 °C, respectively.

An Investigation into the Viability of Cell-Level Temperature Control in Lithium-Ion Battery Packs

Abstract This article focuses on the thermal management and temperature balancing of lithium-ion battery packs. As society transitions to relying more heavily on renewable energy, the need for energy storage rises considerably, as storage facilitates power regulation between these sources and the grid. Lithium-ion batteries are leading the market for energy storage options, but their properties are temperature sensitive, with thermal abuse resulting in shortened pack lifetime and possible safety issues. Current battery thermal management systems (BTMS) are implemented in a number of ways to ensure consistent and reliable operation. However, they are typically limited in architecture and restricted in ability to attend to temperature gradients. This work proposes a BTMS topology that permits control of the individual cooling received by a cell in a pack. First, an analysis is done using timescale separation to confirm that cell-level temperature control is capable of extending the lifetime of a pack as compared to pack-level control. The analysis is used to guide the gain tuning of a state feedback controller, which directs more cooling effort to cells of higher temperatures. Validation of the BTMS topology and control is performed through the simulation of a battery pack, with variations in total cooling power and resistance heterogeneity. The outcome of the validation studies indicates that the proposed BTMS configuration is better equipped to reduce temperature differences and extend pack life. This benefit increases as total input power increases, giving the controller more freedom to cool unhealthy cells while remaining within power constraints.