Battery Heat Research Articles

Structural optimization and battery temperature prediction of battery thermal management system based on machine learning

Lithium-ion batteries significantly extend the driving range for electric motorcycles. The battery thermal management system (BTMS) is critical for achieving optimal battery performance. Moreover, precise battery temperature prediction is essential for efficient thermal management. Therefore, a battery thermal management system integrating air and phase change material (PCM) cooling is proposed. Initially, the impact of PCM height, PCM thickness, and air velocity on battery temperature is analyzed. Subsequently, with cost minimization as the objective and ensuring that the maximum battery temperature remains below a threshold, the Black Kite Algorithm (BKA) is employed to optimize the BTMS structure. Finally, a BKA-Convolutional Neural Network (CNN)-Self Attention (SA) model is introduced for battery temperature prediction. The results indicate that increasing the thickness of the PCM and air velocity facilitates battery heat dissipation but with diminishing marginal effects. An increase in PCM height enhances battery cooling at low air velocities but becomes detrimental at high air velocities. The optimized PCM height is 35 mm, resulting in a cost of 0.073 USD for the BTMS per battery. Additionally, the BKA-CNN-SA model achieved a maximum error of 0.45 °C on the validation set and accurately predicted battery temperature changes before and after PCM melting.

Simulation study on heat dissipation of a prismatic power battery considers anisotropic thermal conductivity in air cooling system

Heat accumulation could be occurred due to low thermal conductivity in one direction inside the power battery, which may lead to the decrease charging performance and potential thermal runaway. In this study, the impact of the anisotropic thermal conductivity (kx, ky, kz) on the temperature of the battery was analyzed. The anisotropic thermal conductivity was divided into the flow direction, thickness direction and spanwise conductivity. Then, the variation regularityof surface temperature distribution and heat flux are revealed by changing the anisotropic thermal conductivity. The results show that the increase of kx improves the heat dissipation efficiency of the upstream battery by 24 %. The higher thermal conductivity allows additional heat to be transferred from upstream to downstream along the direction of flow. The increase of kx makes the temperature difference only about 3 K, which improves the temperature uniformity of the battery. In addition, the impact of kx on the battery heat dissipation process is more dominant than ky and kz. However, there is an upper limit to the impact of ky on the battery temperature. When the ky exceeds 10 times the value of kx, the maximum temperature and temperature uniformity of the battery are almost unaffected by the change of ky. Meanwhile, the increase of kz has the minor effect on the temperature distribution of the battery surface. The anisotropic thermal conductivity is adjusted to reduce heat accumulation in the battery and improve the temperature uniformity. This work is beneficial to the engineering application of battery thermal management technology.

Experimental investigation on an innovative serpentine channel‐based nanofluid cooling technology for modular lithium‐ion battery thermal management

AbstractMany nations have committed to becoming carbon neutral by 2050 as a means of addressing the global warming challenge. To achieve carbon neutrality, transportation is one of the most essential and important tasks. Energy‐efficient pure electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) with green energy power are being developed in response to the worldwide energy and environmental crises, as the potential replacements for the current generation of combustion‐engine automobiles. EVs require batteries more than ever before. In this perspective, lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) stand out as remarkable energy storage technologies and have been widely used due to their numerous impressive benefits. Owing to LIBs sensitivity to temperature, EVs typically use the battery thermal management system (BTMS). The working temperature span of a lithium‐ion battery in an electric car is 15°C–35°C, which is achieved by the use of a BTMS. The production of internal heat during charging and discharging also affects how well lithium‐ion batteries work. A battery heat control system is therefore required. The temperature of the LIB pack might be efficiently controlled by liquid‐cooled systems in discharge and charge scenarios. Based on Al2O3 nanofluid (NF), the current experimental study suggests a novel active cooling technology for regulating the heat produced by the 18650‐format lithium‐ion batteries. A thorough analysis is conducted on the impact of charge/discharge C‐rates, Al2O3 nanoparticle (NP) volume fractions, inflow coolant velocity, and intake liquid temperature on the thermal efficiency of the LIB pack. By incorporating aluminum oxide NPs into the water at varying volume fractions of 0.3%, 0.5%, and 1%, the LIB pack's maximum temperature was significantly reduced by 7.9%, 18.09%, and 19.56%, respectively. With increase in mass flow rate of coolant from 0.0290 to 0.5810 kg/s, the maximum temperature has been substantially reduced by 3.7%–8.6%. Results show that using higher fluid inflow temperature significantly increased both the highest experienced temperature and temperature diversity throughout the discharge operation by about, 6°C and 5°C, respectively. The outcomes of the study indicate that NFs exhibit superior cooling performance compared to conventional coolants such as water and ethylene glycol.

Research on battery heat generation characteristics and thermal management system applied to a typical eVTOL

Electric Vertical Takeoff and Landing (eVTOL) aircraft, as a highly promising future transportation mode, offers new possibilities for solving traffic congestion. Its unique flight mode and high power requirements present significant challenges for battery thermal management system design. Compared to electric vehicles, eVTOLs have totally different usage scenarios and operating conditions, leading to the fact that the thermal management system of conventional electric vehicles does not apply to eVTOLs. This paper proposes a battery thermal management design method for eVTOLs. The energy and power requirements for a short-distance eVTOL flight are determined through theoretical calculations. Additionally, experimental studies explore the thermal characteristics of a 61.5Ah lithium-ion battery under flight discharge conditions. Moreover, a battery thermal management system, which combines flat heat pipes and ram air, is analyzed through numerical simulations. Furthermore, this study investigates the effects of various air temperatures, air inlet mass flow rates, and fin spacing on the performance of the thermal management system. Finally, under the flight discharge cycle of a 61.5 Ah lithium-ion battery, with the environment temperature of 20 °C, the temperature can be controlled within 38.46 °C. The temperature difference can be cooled within 3.85 °C by the passive cooling system. Even at an extreme environment temperature of 40 °C, the battery temperature can still meet the standard. Meanwhile, comparing from multiple dimensions, this solution has a better overall performance than the traditional liquid cooling solution, which provides a foundation for designing a battery thermal management system for eVTOLs.

Effect of sawtooth wave distribution plenum with linearly increasing amplitude on the performance of battery thermal management system

Battery heat generation that occurs during battery charging and discharging can lead to excessive and non-uniform battery temperature in the battery pack. As a result, the battery is more vulnerable to rapid degradation and short cycle life. Effective heat dissipation methods therefore become crucial. In the present study, sawtooth waves with linearly increasing wave amplitude and an inlet notch on the distribution plenum (DP) have been introduced in a typical Z-type battery thermal management system (BTMS) to maximise the cooling effectiveness of the System. Numerical analysis is carried out to investigate the effect of various geometric parameters such as saw tooth wave position, saw tooth wave amplitude, saw tooth wave base width, inlet notch width, and inlet notch height on the performance of BTMS. Velocity contours, streamlines, temperature contours, and maximum battery temperature plots are used to discuss the effects of various factors on the operation of a BTMS. Compared with the typical Z-type BTMS, the modified enclosure design reduced the maximum average battery temperature ( T max ) and maximum temperature differential within the battery pack ( Δ T max ) by 5.11 and 9.01 K respectively, which are 1.56% and 94.90% less than the typical Z-type BTMS respectively.

CFD investigation of pouchtype lithium-ion battery

PurposeIn the dynamic realm of energy storage, lithium-ion batteries stand out as a frontrunner, powering a myriad of devices from smartphones to electric vehicles. However, efficient heat management is crucial for ensuring the longevity and safety of these batteries. This paper aims to delve into the process of lithium-ion battery heat management systems, exploring how cutting-edge technologies are used to regulate temperature and optimize performance. In addition, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) studies take center stage, offering insights into the intricate thermal dynamics within these powerhouses.Design/methodology/approachIn this study, thermal behavior of pouch type lithium-ion battery cell has been investigated by using CFD method. Result of different discharge rates have been evaluated by using multi-scale multi-dimensional (MSMD) battery model. By using MSMD Model 0.5C, 1C, 2C, 3C and 5C discharge rates are compared in equivalent circuit model (ECM) and NTGK empirical models by monitoring averaged surface temperature on battery body wall. In addition, on NTGK model, air cooling effect has been studied with the 0.1 m/s, 0.2 m/s and 0.5 m/s air, velocities.FindingsResults shows that higher discharge rate causes higher temperature on battery zones and air cooling is effective to obtain the lower zone temperatures. Also, ECM model gives higher temperature than NTGK model on battery zone.Originality/valueWhen the literature is evaluated, comparison of the models used in battery cooling (ECM and NTGK) has never been done before. Within the scope of this study, model comparison was made. At the same time, the time step has always been ignored in the literature. In this study, both time step and forced convection conditions were considered when comparing the models.

Modelling Improved Solutions to Reduce the Temperature in Lithium-Ion Batteries

Lithium-Ion batteries are the most common energy storage devices used in electric vehicles. Battery heating management is a current topic, and modern solutions to reduce the temperature, as well as to avoid major or catastrophic defects. The 18650 model is often found in commercial models on the market. Using the the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) standard that models the driver's behaviour with constant acceleration and braking, this work aimed to identify optimal battery cooling solutions on a Renault Zoe vehicle type. The two research directions focused on the variation of the cooling environment, respectively the variation of the positioning of the output/input plugs. The simulations were carried out in COMSOL Multiphysics starting from data provided by Model Advisor in MATLAB numeric computing environment.

Statics Performance and Heat Dissipation Evaluation of Lattice Structures Prepared by Laser Powder Bed Fusion.

This paper address the performance optimization of the battery heat sink module by analyzing the lattice structure of the battery heat sink module through in-depth modeling and simulation, and combining the laser powder bed fusion (LPBF)-forming technology with mechanical and corrosion resistance experiments for a comprehensive study. It is found that the introduction of the lattice skeleton significantly improves the thermal conductivity of the phase change material (PCM), realizing the efficient distribution and fast transfer of heat in the system. At the same time, the lattice skeleton makes the heat distribution in the heat exchanger more uniform, improves the utilization rate of the PCM, and helps to maintain the stability of the cell temperature. In addition, the melting of PCM in the lattice heat exchanger is more uniform, thus maximizing its latent heat capacity. In summary, by optimizing the lattice structure and introducing the lattice skeleton, this study successfully improves the performance of the battery heat dissipation system, which provides a strong guarantee for the high efficiency and stable operation of the battery, and provides new ideas and references for the development of the battery heat dissipation technology.

A distributed parameter model of refrigerant-cooled multi-channel evaporator for battery thermal management

Application of refrigerant-cooled multi-channel evaporators (MCEs) is a promising solution to cool electric vehicle batteries because the non-uniformly distributed heat from a battery can be efficiently dissipated by suitable arrangement of the multi-channels in an MCE. In order to provide a simulation tool for the design of an MCE, a distributed parameter model for quickly predicting the performance of an MCE at various channel arrangements and non-uniformly distributed heating conditions is useful, and thus it is developed in this study. In the model, heat and mass transfer in multiple flow paths in an MCE are separately described; the uneven mass flow distribution among these channels is predicted based on the pressure balance; each flow path is divided into multiple control volumes to reflect the non-uniformly distributed heating conditions; and the mass flow distribution among flow paths and the heat transfer in all the control volumes are jointly solved by a combined iteration algorithm of pressure drop and heat transfer. The proposed model is validated by experiments under the condition of battery heat flux ranging from 500 to 1500 W m−2. The results show that the prediction deviations of the average temperature and the highest temperature on the MCE surface from the experimental ones are 1.5 °C and 1.6 °C, respectively, which indicates that the proposed model can well predict the thermal performance of MCE under non-uniformly distributed battery heat.

Machine learning-based prediction of battery heat generation management in standard driving cycles to avoid thermal runaway and increasing safety

This research study deals with the heat prediction of the battery in electric vehicles. An all-electric vehicle is considered in this study. The FTP-75, NEDC, and WLTC standard driving cycles are used to assess the performance of the electric vehicle battery. Additionally, the actual Munich driving travel cycle was employed in the simulation. The parameters that determine the performance of the vehicle, such as the battery's state of charge (SOC), energy consumption, and operating temperature, are evaluated. The results indicate that raising the gradients increases the temperature and the heat output from the battery. In addition, Munich's driving cycle increased driving time and rapid accelerations have raised temperatures and increased heat generation. The results showed that an increase in the road slope of 5 % results in an increase in the battery temperature of 3 % and a reduction in the SOC of the battery for 20 %. In addition, results showed that for a travel path with an average road slope of 5°, the battery temperature increases about 7 0C which requires more thermal management using hybrid cooling.

Investigation of novel type of cylindrical lithium-ion battery heat exchangers based on topology optimization

The in-depth research on the heat exchanger for lithium-ion batteries is of significant importance due to its crucial role in ensuring the safe operation of electric vehicle (EV) power systems. To enhance the thermal and flow characteristic of the heat exchangers, the novel heat exchangers for 18650-cylinderical lithium-ion batteries have been proposed by topology optimization with the minimization of pressure drop and the lowest average temperature (∏1) and the minimization of pressure drop and the lowest temperature difference (∏2) as two different optimal goals. The topology optimization based on the variable density method is utilized to get two-dimensional (2D) optimal channels, and then the optimized results are extended to three-dimensional (3D) heat exchangers. The 3D heat exchangers are named TOHE-1 which is gotten by stretching the topology channels with ∏1 as optimal goal and TOHE-2 which is gotten by that with ∏2 as optimal goal. Subsequently, a detailed thermodynamic analysis is performed to assess the effect of the type of heat exchangers, channel heights, weight factor of topology optimization function, mass flow rates and discharge rates on the cooling effect of the batteries. The results show that compared with the traditional channel heat exchangers, the heat transfer coefficient of topological heat exchangers have increased by 49.92%, while reducing pressure drop by 27.81%. Meanwhile, compared to TOHE-1, heat transfer coefficient of TOHE-2 is increased by 9.70%, while pressure drop is saved by 4.70%. Other studies have indicated that for a 4 C discharge of the battery, a topological heat exchanger with a channel height of 1.5 mm, a thermal performance weight factor of 0.1, and a mass flow with 3.3 × 10−3 kg s−1 is the optimum heat dissipation scheme. Finally, the numerical studies are verified by conducting the convective heat transfer experimental tests.

Thermal management performance of lithium-ion batteries coupled with honeycomb array manifold and phase change materials under microgravity conditions

Absence of natural convection in microgravity brings new challenges to the design of battery heat dissipation and cooling systems, which is key to solving the problems of aerospace thermal control systems. A novel model is proposed to numerically investigate the thermal management performance of lithium-ion batteries coupled with honeycomb array manifold and phase change materials (PCM) under microgravity conditions. Compared with traditional battery thermal management system (BTMS), the present study deftly takes advantage of the honeycomb manifold liquid cooling plate to improve the flow distribution and power loss, as well as the isothermal phase transition and energy storage effects of the PCM to better thermal management performance. The finite volume method is used to solve three-dimensional thermal management processes within the hybrid BTMS. Experimental validations are conducted for the heat generation model of battery and the mathematical model of BTMS. Special considerations are shown for the effects of manifold flow structures, inlet and outlet layouts and geometric parameters on cooling performance and energy consumption of BTMS. The numerical results show that PCM coupled with honeycomb array manifold cooling plate of scheme 6 has the advantages of efficient heat dissipation and energy efficiency. The inlet distributed in hexagonal corners of Case 2 has a maximum temperature of about 308 K, which is about 1 K lower than that of Case 1 and its coefficient of performance is about 1.55 times of that of Case 1. For the three cases with TPCM : TC < 1, the variation of pressure drop is within 1.06 %. For the same battery spacing, the ratio of TPCM : TC between 3/7 ∼ 2/3 has better overall performance.

Experiment study of pseudo-passive heat removal system for power battery thermal runaway propagation inhibition

Approximately 41% of power battery thermal runaway propagation accidents happen at rest conditions; hence, developing passive technologies to stop such accidents is highly necessary. Existing passive power battery thermal runaway propagation inhibition approaches involve thermal insulation. However, the relatively large thermal resistance is incompatible with thermal management, which is a bottleneck that needs to be addressed properly. In this paper, a pseudo-passive heat removal system is proposed, to be combined with less thermal resistance to cut off thermal runaway propagation. The pseudo-passive heat removal system is based on a pump-driven cooling and thermoelectric conversion process, that is, the latter converts battery heat generation into electric energy to power the former. A prototype was developed, and its operational characteristics were studied. First, steady performance of pump-driven cooling processes with large temperature differences were analyzed. Second, the transient processes of the prototype for different internal electric-energy allocations were compared. It was found that the system heat removal rate in the working mode in which more energy was assigned to the pump-driven cooling process was 35% better than the rate when more energy was assigned to the thermoelectric conversion process. The novelty of this study lies in proposing a pseudo-passive power battery heat removal system and highlighting the effects of key parameters. This study provides new insights into heat removal from power batteries and will be helpful in enhancing electric vehicle safety.

Accurate Measurement of the Internal Temperature of 280 Ah Lithium-Ion Batteries by Means of Pre-Buried Thermocouples

Batteries with an energy storage capacity of 280 Ah play a crucial role in promoting the development of smart grids. However, the inhomogeneity of their internal temperature cannot be accurately measured at different constant charge and discharge power, affecting the efficiency and safety of the battery. This work adopts finite element analysis to determine the typical internal temperature of a single-cell model, which can guide the measuring position of the battery. Before the manufacturing process, a slim pre-buried sensor is utilized to reduce the negative impacts of different constant charge and discharge powers. The maximum internal temperature of the battery is up to 77 °C at a constant charge and discharge power of 896 W. The temperature difference between the two poles and the battery surface is as high as 26.2 °C, which is beyond the safety temperature (55 °C). This phenomenon will result in the degradation of the positive electrode through dQ/dV curves. These measurements of battery internal temperature can improve battery heat control and facilitate the development of energy storage technology.

Preparation and properties of resin matrix composites reinforced by high thermal conductivity graphite films

AbstractHigh thermal conductivity graphite films (GFs) have a thermal conductivity, which have attracted much attention in recent years. As the surface of GFs is extremely smooth, the resin matrix and GFs are only connected by van der Waals forces, and it is difficult to produce chemical bonds between them, resulting in poor mechanical properties of the composites. In this study, the composites were prepared by etching defects on the surface of GFs by high‐temperature heat treatment. It was determined that the critical temperature range for effective etching was between 600 and 650°C. The GFs were subjected to high‐temperature heat treatment to create circular, hexagonal, and disordered groove‐like defects, and then combined with prepregs and bismaleimide resins in a single molding process. The composites exhibit a distinct layered “sandwich” structure, where surface‐induced defects enhance the interfacial adhesion between GFs and the resin matrix, creating a “nail‐punched” structure. The thermal conductivity of the S‐650 sample in the X‐direction was up to 1187.93 W/(m·K), and the flexural strength of the S‐800 sample was up to 116.18 MPa. The prepared composites are expected to be widely used in thermal interface fields such as heat exchangers, battery heat dissipation and aerospace thermal control systems.Highlights High‐temperature treatment was used to successfully introduce defects into GFs. The formation mechanisms of the three types of defects were explained. The thermal conductivity of the composites was increased to over 1000 W/(m·K). Composites reinforced with modified GFs exhibit enhanced mechanical properties.

Thermo-electrochemical level-set topology optimization of a heat exchanger for lithium-ion batteries for electric vertical take-off and landing vehicles

Developing electric vertical take-off and landing vehicles (eVTOL) that can meet the demanding power and energy requirements entails significant challenges, one of which is due to the weight of the battery packs. To address this challenge, optimization techniques can be employed to achieve lightweight designs while satisfying thermal criteria. This study focuses on optimizing a battery heat exchanger housing a high-energy-densitycylindrical cell using the level-set topology optimization method. To accurately account for heat generation from battery electrochemistry, we investigate both a high-fidelity, the Doyle Fuller Newman (DFN) model, and a low-fidelity electrochemical model, the Single Particle Model (SPM), which are compared to experimental results for an eVTOL flight profile. The novelty of the proposed approach resides in the integration of the electrochemical models within a three-dimensional unsteady thermo-electrochemical topology optimization framework. The battery heat exchanger is optimized considering the heat generated by the batteries at the material scale due to the system power requirements. The heat generated by the battery is incorporated as a source term in an unsteady heat conduction finite element model, forming the basis of the optimization process. Our objective is to minimize the integrated thermal compliance over time while satisfying a volume constraint, employing the level-set method. The SPM proves competent in predicting the voltage profile but underestimates the temperature increase. On the other hand, the DFN model accurately predicts both the temperature increase and the voltage profile, making it suitable for the thermal analysis of cells in eVTOL vehicles. Surprisingly, steady-state optimization turns out to be sufficient to generate optimized topologies that perform similarly to transient cases for the case investigated but at a reduced cost. By integrating electrochemical modeling, level-set topology optimization, and heat transfer analysis, our study contributes to the development of lightweight and thermally efficient battery heat exchangers for eVTOL vehicles, which can be extended to battery packs. Importantly, the presented methodology is versatile and can be applied to different battery chemistries, form factors, and power profiles.

Minimum Air Cooling Requirements for Different Lithium-ion Battery Operating Statuses

Abstract Batteries play an important role in increasing the use of renewable energy sources. Owing to the temperature sensitivity of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), battery thermal management systems (BTMSs) are crucial to ensuring the safe and efficient operation of LIBs. Researchers have mainly focused on evaluating the performance of BTMS; however, little attention has been paid to the minimum cooling requirements of LIBs, which are important for optimizing the design and operation of BTMSs. To bridge this knowledge gap, the aim in this study was to determine the minimum air cooling requirements for different LIBs operating statuses based on computational fluid dynamics simulations. The inlet airflow rate had the strongest influence. For the studied cases, when the battery operates at charge/discharge (C) rate of three or below, the inlet temperature should be set below 35 °C, and the gap between the batteries should be greater than 3 mm to meet the minimum heat dissipation requirement. At a C-rate of 0.5C, natural convection is sufficient to meet the cooling needs, whereas at 1C or higher rates, forced convection is required. Increasing the number of batteries from six to eight has little impact on the inlet flow required to accommodate the battery heat dissipation.

Integrated design of multi-circuit thermal management system with battery waste heat utilization for new energy vehicle and performance assessment

A multi-circuit integrated thermal management system for new energy vehicle is proposed to realize the different coupling relationship between the heat exchanger for the cabin and the chiller for the battery through the four-way reversing valves and the solenoid valves. The effects of circuit selection, ambient temperature, driving test conditions and waste heat utilization on thermal management performance are discussed. The results indicate that thermal management can be carried out through three circuits in the system for heating conditions. The cabin is heated first in Circuit 1 and Circuit 3, while the battery has a higher priority in Circuit 2. The energy consumption in Circuit 1 is close to that in Circuit 2 at different ambient temperature. Compared with the other two circuits, Circuit 3 is more power-efficient, with energy consumption reduced by 14.81 %, and energy efficiency increased by 0.11 and 0.13 respectively at 10 °C of ambient temperature. The thermal management performance of Circuit 2 is least affected by the driving test conditions, and the maximum time difference of battery heating completion under different conditions is 284 s. High vehicle speed is beneficial to the waste heat utilization of the battery, for intense driving conditions, the energy consumption reduction ratio in Circuit 1 and Circuit 2 is more than 19.50 % and exergic efficiency is increased by more than 1.01 % in each circuit. Circuit 1 and Circuit 2 are better for intense driving conditions, and Circuit 3 is a good choice for urban driving conditions.

Hazard comparison of thermal runaway of electric marine battery cabinet under different trigger modes

Currently, the transportation industry, especially shipping, is still accompanied by serious carbon emissions and pollution. Electric ships are the most promising way to solve this problem. However, the application of electric ships in maritime affairs also faces many technical difficulties. This paper studies the heat generation and heat transfer in electric Marine battery cabinets (EMBC). Based on the Multi-Scale and Multi-Domain (MSMD) solution method, this study uses the Newman, Tiedemann, Gu, and Kim (NTGK) battery model to solve the thermal runaway propagation (TRP) of the EMBC, and then makes a visual analysis of the TRP of the EMBC with the three-layer Battery module (BM) structure. Furthermore, the TRP of the three-layer BM is compared based on three different triggering modes. Through analysis and comparison, it is found that among the three TR triggering modes: single battery heating, heat source at the bottom of the module, and heat source at the top. The first mode corresponds to a maximum heat release (HR) of 214.7 GJ, while the third mode exhibits a minimum HR of 212.3 GJ. Furthermore, the maximum temperature reached by the battery under the third mode is 1568 K, which is lower than that achieved in the other two modes. Additionally, it should be noted that the second mode has a higher maximum HR rate of 5772 GW/m3 compared to the third mode. The TR hazard resulting from heating at the bottom of the battery module outweighs that caused by heating at the top, without taking into account human-induced heating factors. The propagation of TR triggered by a single heat source throughout the EMBC can be inhibited within 226 s in the same layer, and prevented from spreading to the remaining layers for up to 596 s. In the present study, a new insight is presented to reveal the TR characteristics of the EMBC under different triggering modes, and quantify the TR duration.

Advancements in Battery Thermal Management for High-Energy-Density Lithium-Ion Batteries in Electric Vehicles: A Comprehensive Review

Lithium-ion batteries are frequently utilized in electric vehicles because of their high energy density and prolonged cycle life. Maintaining the right temperature range is crucial since lithium-ion batteries' performance and lifespan are highly sensitive to temperature. This study discusses a practical battery heat control system in this setting. The phenomenon of heat generation and significant thermal problems with lithium-ion batteries are reviewed in this work. The studies on various battery thermal management systems (BTMS) are then thoroughly analysed and arranged into groups based on thermal cycle possibilities. Direct refrigerant two-phase cooling, second-loop liquid cooling, and cabin air cooling are all components of the BTMS. Phase change material cooling, heat pipe cooling, and thermoelectric element cooling are all future parts of the BTMS. The maximum temperature and maximum temperature differential of the batteries are examined for each BTMS, and a suitable BTMS that addresses the drawbacks of each system is discussed. Finally, a novel BTMS is suggested as a practical thermal management solution for lithium-ion batteries with high energy density.