Fat Basis Research Articles

Red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa) as bioindicators for persistent chlorinated chemicals in Spain.

Persistent organochlorine residues such as hexachlorobenzene (HCB), hexachlorocyclohexane isomers (HCHs), chlorocyclodienes, and the DDT group (DDTs) were determined in fat and muscle samples of resident red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa) hunted in Spain. Chlorinated contamination pattern varied largely depending on geographical distribution. Birds collected from the northern part of Spain contained greater concentrations of lindane (34.4 ng/g fat basis) than those from central or southern Spain. In contrast, red-legged partridges collected in southern locations exhibited elevated levels of p,p-DDE (62.3 ng/g fat basis) as compared with central (31.2 ng/g fat basis) and northern areas (5.6 ng/g fat basis). The only cyclodiene detected, dieldrin, showed higher amounts (3.4 ng/g fat basis) in partridges collected in central Spain. The sex differences in pollutant occurrence and concentrations were negligible. One-year-old birds accumulated greater concentrations of beta-HCH, and dieldrin than older birds. Global comparison of organochlorine concentrations indicated that northern partridges are more contaminated by compounds of industrial origin, whereas southern birds contained greater amounts of agricultural chemicals. Estimates of hazards associated with organochlorine levels in resident red-legged partridges in Spain suggested that southern birds may be at risk from exposure to DDTs, and northern birds may be affected by excessive concentrations of lindane. The use of red-legged partridge as bioindicator for OCP contamination is discussed.

潜水鴨類キンクロハジロによるフタル酸ジ‐２‐エチルヘキシル及びフタル酸ジ‐ｎ‐ブチルの生物濃縮

Bioaccumulation of di-2-ethylhexyl phtalate (DEHP) and di-n-butyl phtalate (DBP) by a wintering diving duck, Aythya fuligula, was studied by a conventional analysis modified to minimize contamination. The 0.061 μg · g-1 for DEHP and the 0.041 μg · g-1 for DBP were detected in a blank sample throughout whole procedure. Added DEHP and DBP were recovered at 105.2% and 106.3%, respectively. Trophic level of A. fuligula was examined using carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios. Nitrogen stable isotope ratios suggested that organic component of the liver of A. fuligula was changed with its food bivalve, Corbicula japonica, by 70 days after duck's arrival. Mean concentrations of DEHP and DBP on basis of fat in the livers of ducks and the flesh of C. japonica were 332μg · g-1 and 7.51μg · g-1 for DEHP, and 12.1μg · g-1 and 6.88μg · g-1 for DBP, respectively. Concentrations of DEHP in the livers of ducks increased towards the middle of December 1994, and decreased afterwards, suggesting that both bioaccumulation and decomposition of DEHP occurred in the liver of ducks. Increase of DEHP concentrations towards the middle of December 1994 was attributed to the backflow of saline water from urbanized area, because carbon isotope ratios and the concentrations of DEHP in the liver of ducks showed positive correlation.

Potential for economic benefits to the producer from altering the composition of milk

AbstractCost–price models were developed to describe milk collection, manufacture and marketing of standardised fluid milk, butter, cheese, casein, and milk powders. Market constraints were modelled by fixing fluid milk demand to 10% or 70% of milk production. Milks representative of New Zealand Holstein-Friesian (HF) and Jersey (J) breeds, and novel technologies were considered. The true value of each milk was assessed from its own processing performance on the basis of fat, protein, lactose and volume considerations. Average milk was worth £0.193/kg when a significant fluid market exists, reducing to £0.112/kg when most milk was manufactured into concentrated dairy products for sale on the world market. Milk from different breeds varied in true value. On a per kilogram basis, HF milk was less valuable than J milk.Single and multiple component payment systems were quantified for various subsets of milk components and used to obtain predicted values of a range of milks for comparison to their true values. Values of milks that differ in composition from average milk tend to have predicted values that deviate from their true value. The extent of such bias varies depending upon the payment system considered. For example, volume-based payment over-valued HF milk and penalised J milk. Other payment systems undervalued HF milk and over–valued J milk.Payment systems should be fair, discourage unfavourable changes in composition and provide opportunities for shifts towards the production of more valuable milk. The marketing mix and the choice of payment system have major impact on the potential for economic benefits to the producer from modifying the composition of milk. Payment systems need careful, thorough investigation in concert with market research and studies into breeding and other management opportunities for modifying milk composition.A value-based payment system can encourage producers to alter the composition of their milk in order to increase revenue.

Effect of homogenization of cream on composition, yield, and functionality of Cheddar cheese made from milk supplemented with ultrafiltered milk

Cheddar cheeses were made from milks supplemented with ultrafiltered skim milk to 4.57 and 5.93% protein and from milks without supplementation to serve as controls (3.18% protein). Milks were standardized (casein-to-fat ratio of 0.7) with unhomogenized cream or homogenized (6.9/3.45 MPa) cream. The six treatments were replicated five times. Rennet clotting time decreased with protein concentration and homogenization of cream increased it. k 20 , the time to reach an ampli- tude of 20 mm on formagraph after rennet clotting time, decreased with homogenization and concen- tration. a 40 , the amplitude on formagraph after 40 min of rennet addition, increased with protein and homogenization. Cheese moisture ranged from 37.29 to 39.37% and the proportion of fat in dry matter ranged from 52.9 to 53.7%. Cheese yield adjusted to 37% moisture and 1.5% salt and adjus- ted yield per kg protein increased significantly in treatments with both protein concentration and homogenization. Fat recovered in cheese decreased with concentration in unhomogenized treat- ments while it increased in homogenized treatments. Protein recovery increased with protein concen- tration. A sensory panel did not detect any significant difference in flavor, flavor intensity, and body and texture with protein supplementation, but there was a significant increase in the body and texture scores in treatments with homogenization. Hardness of cheeses increased in treatments with concen- tration. Meltability of cheese increased with age in homogenized treatments. Free oil and free oil on fat basis decreased in treatments with homogenization and concentration. These two parameters also decreased with cheese age with a larger decrease for the homogenized treatments.

Levels of polychlorinated biphenyls, polychlorinated dibenzo- p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in commercial yoghurt samples in Spain : Comparison with different dairy products

A method developed previously for the simultaneous analysis of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzo- p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) in powdered full fat milk is now examined for their determination in yoghurt. The results of this study are consistent with those found for PCBs and PCDD/Fs in powdered full fat milk. The methodology is based on the matrix solid-phase dispersion of the freeze dried yoghurt enabling the extraction of the neutral and apolar lipids of the matrix. Mean recoveries were above 94% for the studied coplanar PCB congeners spiked at the typical reported levels for dairy products and above 92% for the spiked 13 C 12 -PCDD/Fs. The validated methodology was applied to the PCB and PCDD/F analysis in full fat and low fat yoghurts form different brands commercialised in Spain. In all cases, levels detected in the low fat yoghurts analysed were several times higher than those found in the full fat yoghurts when reported on a fat basis (between 3.3 and 11 times for PCBs and between 3.3 and 45 times for PCDD and PCDF homologue groups). In general, this discrepancy applied also for the toxic 2,3,7,8-TCDD equivalents (TEQs) calculated in each case. The calculated TEQs (on a fat weight basis) from PCBs and PCDFs in the low fat yoghurts were higher than those reported previously for different Spanish dairy products, including liquid and powdered milk and butter. Nevertheless, the estimated daily intake (DI) for low fat yoghurts was lower than those calculated for the rest of the dairy products investigated. This apparent contradiction showed that the regulation of PCB and PCDD/F contents should be based on DIs rather than on TEQs reported on a fat-adjusted basis. Finally, the feasibility of differentiation among different dairy products, i.e. liquid and powdered milk, butter and yoghurt, on the basis of their respective PCB and PCDD/F patterns by using multivariate methods, has been shown.

Occurrence and distribution of organochlorine residues in fish from the magdalena and meta rivers in Colombia

From sexually mature female fish of 32 different species muscle tissues and eggs were collected at four sites in the Magdalena and Meta rivers in Colombia. In most of the fishes, organochlorine residues were found both in the muscle tissues and in the eggs. On a fat basis, the level of SDDT and PCBs in the muscle tissues ranged from 55–10 700 and 5–5610 ng/g lipid weight, respectively. The concentration of these compounds in the fish eggs were generally lower than those in the tissues. The levels of the residues in the fish were highest in the middle and lower part of the Magdalena River, indicating a contamination of the whole fish community. The results show that this river, especially its lower part after merging with the River Bogotá, is heavily influenced by anthropogenic persistent compounds. The pollution of lakes, dams, rivers and coastal areas with sewage, pesticides and industrial wastes is one of the most pressing environmental problems in Colombia. Since there are no statistics or other material that permit a diagnosis of the problem and its magnitude, it is urgent to carry out such investigations to identify sources and take appropriate measures. The responsibility for the use and control of industrial and agricultural chemicals is today shared among many regional corporations. We suggest the establishment of an authority at high technical and govermental level that can initiate monitoring and coordinate actions to alleviate the present situation.

Levels of PCBs, PCDDs and PCDFs in commercial butter samples in Spain

Feasibility of three different extraction methods for the simultaneous determination of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) in butter is discussed. The method based on liquid-liquid extraction with water of the non fatty solids from butter dissolved in hexane was found to be the most efficinent for the determination of the lipid content and the levels of the investigated pollutants. This method was used to evaluate the background levels of PCBs, PCDDs and PCDFs in butters commercially available in Spain. Broad ranges of PCB, specifically, PCDD and PCDF concentrations were found in the different brands analysed. Levels, profiles and patterns of these pollutants in butter were compared with those previously reported for different Spanish dairy products. The toxic tetra-equivalents of 2,3,7,8-TCDD (I-TEQ) averages for PCDDs and PCDFs in the 21 butter samples analysed were 0.41 and 0.70 pg/g fat basis, respectively. These values were similar or lower than those cited in the literature for other countries.

Tissue distribution of planar and non-planar chlorobiphenyls, 4,4′-DDE and hexachlorobenzene in sheep and lambs

The bioconcentration and distribution pattern of individual PCB congeners (IUPAC Nos: −54, −80, −155 and −169) and organochlorine pesticides (HCB and 4,4′-DDE) in blood, adipose tissue, liver and brain were examined in sheep two months after administration and in their offspring continuously exposed during the two months lactation period. Analyses were performed by high resolution gas chromatography. The levels of individual organochlorines varied significantly between tissues; the tissue/blood ratio (on a fat basis) varied by two orders of magnitude for individual congeners. The bioconcentration of the toxic planar PCB-169 congener was the highest in the liver and the lowest in the brain of the sheep.

Comparative study of methodologies for the analysis of PCDDs and PDCFs in powdered full-fat milk. PCB, PCDD and PCDF levels in commercial samples from Spain

Feasibility of two different extraction methods involving solid-liquid extraction and Soxhlet extraction, previously used for the determination of lipid contents and PCB levels on powdered full-fat milk, are now examined for simultaneous PCDD/F analysis. The results of this study are consistent with those found for PCBs. The solid-liquid procedure provides the most efficient extraction of both labelled spiked and endogenous PCDD/Fs with the lowest variability. The average recoveries were 101% (R.S.D.=6.9%) for 13C 12,-2,3,7,8-TCDD and 95% (R.S.D.= 11%) for 13C 12-1,2,3,4,7,8-HxCDD. The R.S.D.s for endogenous 2,3,7,8-PCDD/Fs were in the 9.3–25% range. In addition, this methodology simplified the subsequent clean-up step as it allowed a semi-selective extraction of the apolar lipids from the milk. The proposed method was applied to simultaneous PCB and PCDD/F analyses in different brands of powdered full-fat milks commercially available in Spain. In all cases, very similar PCB and PCDD/F levels were found. Differences among batches from the same manufacturer were even lower. The total i-TEQ average for PCDDs and PCDFs OCDFs in the 22 powdered full-fat milk samples analysed was l.87 pg/g fat basis. This value was similar to those found in cow's milk from other European countries.

Energy expenditure of young Polynesian and European women in New Zealand and relations to body composition

Reduced energy expenditure and excessive energy intake have been hypothesized to cause obesity. New Zealanders of Polynesian origin have a higher prevalence of obesity than do those of European origin. We investigated relations between components of energy expenditure and body composition. We measured total energy expenditure (TEE) and resting metabolic rate (RMR) in 80 young women [40 New Zealand (NZ) Polynesian and 40 NZ European] aged 18-27 y by the doubly labeled water method and indirect calorimetry, respectively. Each group was partitioned into nonobese and obese on the basis of percentage body fat. TEE and body weight were highly correlated in nonobese NZ Europeans (n = 23, r = 0.76, P < 0.001), obese NZ Europeans (r = 0.58, P = 0.016), and nonobese NZ Polynesians (n = 25, r = 0.59, P = 0.002) but not in obese NZ Polynesians (r = 0.11, P = 0.70). Activity energy expenditure (AEE = TEE - RMR) was similar in obese Polynesians and Europeans (mean+/-SD: 5.5+/-2.2 and 5.2+/-1.9 MJ/d, respectively), but significantly higher in nonobese Polynesians (5.7+/-2.5 MJ/d) than in their European counterparts (3.8+/-1.9 MJ/d, P = 0.005). Similar trends were seen when AEE adjusted for body weight and TEE/RMR were compared among the subgroups. Body weight and RMR together accounted for 66% of the variation in TEE for the European group but only 17% for the Polynesian group. Care should be taken in applying "Caucasian norms" relating to energy expenditure to NZ Polynesian people.

Phospholipid fatty acids and meat quality in cattle breeds fed different diets

The aim of future beef production is healthier, tastier products which consumers will find attractive. Combinations of breed and feeding system are required to fulfil these aims. In this project we compared the Holstein- Friesian (HF) breed, an allegedly inferior beef producer, with Welsh Black (WB), a traditional beef breed. Of particular interest was the role of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in flavour development.Thirty six steers, 18 HF and 18 WB, were reared on grass silage plus one of three concentrates. The concentrates contained different fat sources at 0.03 of intake: 1. megalac (control, C16:0); 2. formaldehyde-protected whole linseed (Lin, C18:3 n-3); and 3. an equal mix on a fat basis of protected linseed and fish oil (Lin/fish, C20:5 and C22:6 n-3). The animals were slaughtered after 90 days consumption of the diets. Fortyeight hours after slaughter, three forequarter muscles (M. supraspinatus, M. infraspinatus and M. triceps brachii caput longum) were trimmed of fat, minced and displayed in modified atmosphere packs (0.8 02:0.2 CO2, 4°C in 1000 Lux) for 3 or 10 days.

Organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in human milk of mothers living in northern Germany: Current extent of contamination, time trend from 1986 to 1997 and factors that influence the levels of contamination

This study reports the concentration levels of PCB, DDT, HCB and β-HCH in the human milk of women living in northern Germany over a period of 12 years and determines factors that may influence these levels. From 1986 to 1997 more than 3500 milk samples were analyzed for organochlorine compounds. A questionnaire was used to obtain information regarding personal characteristics, life style factors and eating habits. Descriptive statistics of concentration levels were computed to characterize the current extent of contamination. To follow time trends across the years homogeneous subgroups were compared and multiple regression analyses were used to investigate associations between determining factors and specific contaminants. Between summer 1995 and summer 1997 the median PCB concentration level was 0.502 mg/kg, the median DDT level 0.202 mg/kg, the median HCB level 0.065 mg/kg and the median β-HCH level 0.036 mg/kg, all values expressed on a fat basis. The median concentration levels decreased by 80–90% during the past 12 years and the median PCB levels by 60%. The concentration levels of all substances were positively correlated with maternal age and negatively associated to parity, to the total period of breast-feeding and to a weight increase of mothers before and after delivery. Post-pregnancy BMI was a significant predictor of the likelihood of having higher concentrations for DDT, HCB and β-HCH and of having lower concentrations for PCB levels. A balanced diet for at least 3 years was related to lower HCB and β-HCH levels. Women who ate more than 100 g of fish or more than 700 g of meat per week were more likely to have higher PCB and β-HCH levels or higher HCB levels, respectively. Higher HCB and β-HCH concentration levels were associated with lower birth weights of female infants.

Dietary fat and obesity: an epidemiologic perspective

The observation that dietary fat has an effect on weight gain and the development of obesity that is larger than would be expected on the basis of fat's energy value is mainly experimental. Several methodologic problems limit the interpretation of epidemiologic studies of the association between dietary fat intake and obesity. Among the issues relevant in this context are underreporting of energy and fat intakes, dieting behavior, inadequate control for variables such as energy expenditure, and limited between-subject variation in fat intake in developed countries. Different types of epidemiologic studies suffer from different types and magnitudes of bias and many conflicting results can be obtained. Ecologic and cross-sectional studies especially suffer from these biases. The more appropriate type of study (ie, prospective studies of fat intake and subsequent weight gain) was carried out in several countries but conflicting results were obtained. Overall, the observed associations seem to depend on the stage of cultural transition of the population studied (eg, modernization compared with postmodernization). Current epidemiologic methods are inadequate for performing valid studies of the relation between percentage of energy from dietary fat and obesity. Specifically designed prospective studies of unbiased estimates of energy balance are necessary. Appropriate control for confounders and emphasis on the possibility that genetic predisposition plays a role will also be necessary. At this stage there is no conclusive evidence from epidemiologic studies that under isoenergetic conditions dietary fat intake promotes the development of obesity more so than other macronutrients.

Organochlorine pesticide residues in cow's milk and butter in Mexico

This monitoring study of 355 samples of cow's milk collected from the central region of Veracruz state and 448 samples of national butter brands was conducted to determine the contamination levels of organochlorine pesticides. The results obtained for mean HCH levels were 0.094 and 0.093 mg/kg on fat basis in cow's milk and butter samples, respectively. The mean DDT levels were 0.159 and 0.049 mg/kg, respectively. In relation to cow's milk, the total HCH levels in Veracruz state were higher but total DDT levels were comparable to those reported in other countries. On the other hand, organochlorine levels detected in national brand butter samples were lower than those found in other countries, where these pesticides are still used in sanitary actions. These results confirmed that dairy products in Mexico presented organochlorine pesticide residues (owing to their use in sanitary actions) indicating a human exposure through these food products.

Levels of PCDDs and PCDFs in farm cow's milk located near potential contaminant sources in Asturias (Spain). Comparison with levels found in control, rural farms and commercial pasteurized cow's milks

Cows milk samples from 12 dairy farms in Spain and 23 samples of pasteurised cows milk were analysed for PCDD/F. Farms located in rural areas without specific dioxin sources (background levels) ranged from 1.3 to 2.47 pg TEQ/g fat basis. These values were slightly lower than those found in milk from the vicinity of potential dioxin emission sources (waste incinerator, chemical and metallurgical industry) and similar to milk near paper industry. The waste incinerator seems to be the emission source with the highest influence on the cows milk gathered in its vicinity. Thus, milk near the waste incinerator exhibited the highest PCDD/F levels, the highest PCDF/PCDD ratio and its congener PCDD pattern showed the highest difference respect to its control point. The PCDD/F average concentrations found in pasteurised commercial milk were lower than those found in raw milk and were comparable to those found in retail milk from other countries.

Utilization of high‐melting palm stearin in lipase‐catalyzed interesterification with liquid oils

AbstractPalm stearin with a melting point (m.p.) of 49.8°C was fractionated from acetone to produce a low‐melting palm stearin (m.p.=35°C) and a higher‐melting palm stearin (HMPS, m.p.=58°C) fraction. HMPS was modified by interesterification with 60% (by weight) of individual liquid oils from sunflower, soybean, and rice bran by means of Mucor miehei lipase. The interesterified products were evaluated for m.p., solid fat content, and carbon number glyceride composition. When HMPS was interesterified individually with sunflower, soybean or rice bran at the 60% level, the m.p. of the interesterified products were 37.5, 38.9, and 39.6°C, respectively. The solid fat content of the interesterified products were 30–35 at 10°C, 17–19 at 20°C, and 6–10 at 30°C, respectively. The carbon number glyceride compositions also changed significantly. C48 and C54 glycerides decreased remarkably with a corresponding increase of the C50 and C52 glycerides. All these interesterified products were suitable for use as trans acid‐free and polyunsaturated fatty acid‐rich shortening and margarine fat bases.

Transfer of planar and non-planar chlorobiphenyls, 4,4′-DDE and hexachlorobenzene from blood to milk and to suckling infants

The transfer coefficients of tetra- and hexachlorobiphenyls (PCB-54; -80; -155; and -169), HCB and 4,4′-DDE between milk and blood were monitored for eight weeks in sheep previously administered with these compounds by intramuscular injection. Analyses were performed by high resolution gas chromatography. The milk/blood ratio on a fat basis was close to 1 for HCB, over 1 for 4,4′-DDE, PCB-155, and -169 and below 1 for PCB-54 and -80. It is speculated that the deviation from the ratio 1 results from the interactions of organochlorines with (lipo)proteins in blood and/or milk. In milk, the enrichment of 4,4′-DDE, PCB-155 and -169 was observed. The relative toxicity expressed by the toxic equivalent (on a fat basis) was approximately 2.5 times higher in milk than in blood.

Changes in the major free fatty acids in Serra cheese throughout ripening

Abstract Changes in the concentrations of the free fatty acids (FFA) containing an even number of carbon atoms in Serra cheese were monitored using a two-way factorial design over a ripening period of 35 days throughout the cheesemaking season. Both time variables had statistically significant effects at the 5% level on the concentrations of FFA. The concentration of stearic acid increased significantly to 351 mg kg−1 (fat basis) only during the first week of ripening. Concentrations of palmitic and oleic acids increased significantly during all stages of ripening and approximately doubled during the 35-day ripening period to reach levels of 425 and 453 mg kg−1, respectively. Concentrations of butyric, caprylic, lauric and myristic acids were approximately constant during the first week and increased significantly thereafter up to 285, 17, 94 and 59 mg kg−1, respectively, at 35 days. The concentrations of caprylic and myristic acids increased five-fold in 35 days, the concentration of butyric acid increased three-fold, and the concentration of lauric acid almost doubled during the same period. The concentrations of caproic, capric, linoleic and linolenic acids increased significantly to 48, 121, 188 and 126 mg kg−1, respectively, only after 21 days of ripening. The concentration of linoleic acid doubled in that time period, while increases in the concentrations of caproic, capric and linolenic acids were much smaller. The concentrations of butyric, caproic and palmitic acids in cheeses manufactured in February were statistically lower than those in cheeses manufactured in May. The principal FFAs throughout ripening were, according to chain length and degree of saturation, butyric (short-chain), capric (medium-chain), palmitic and stearic acids (saturated long-chain), and oleic (unsaturated long-chain). Saturated and unsaturated long-chain FFA were present at the highest concentration at all stages of ripening. It is concluded that lipolysis in Serra cheese proceeds slowly to total FFA concentration of 2167 mg kg−1 (fat basis) by 35 days of ripening.

Tempering method for chocolate containing milk‐fat fractions

AbstractAnhydrous milk fat (AMF) was fractionated by a two‐stage dry fractionation process to produce three fractions—high‐(HMF), middle‐(MMF), and low‐melting (LMF). The effect of replacing 12.2–40% by weight of cocoa butter with these fractions on the tempering profile of milk chocolate was studied. Degree of temper was evaluated by differential scanning calorimetry, and expressed as the ratio of enthalpies of melting for higher‐stability polymorphs to those of lesser stability. The degree of temper was dependent on the crystallization time and temperature, and the type and quantity of milk‐fat fraction in the formulation. Chocolates containing AMF or its fractions in concentrations of up to 20 wt% (total fat basis) were tempered after a conventional thermocycling tempering process (50°C/30 min, 27.7°C/4 min, 31°C/2 min) to obtain products with good contraction and mold release properties. For those milk chocolate formulations that did not temper by the conventional method and resulted in poor contraction and mold release, a new tempering protocol was developed. Lower crystallization temperatures and/or longer holding times were required at concentrations of AMF, MMF, or LMF above 20%. Chocolate containing HMF required slightly higher crystallization temperatures because of high viscosity. Chocolates containing up to 35% HMF and up to 40% of the total weight of fat in the chocolate of AMF, MMF, and LMF were successfully tempered by adjusting crystallization time and temperature.

Detection of some organochlorine pesticides in cow's milk

This monitoring study of 192 samples of cow's milk collected from the central region of Veracruz state was conducted to determine the contamination levels of organochlorine pesticides. The results obtained for mean DDT and HCH levels were 0.057 and 0.098 mg/kg respectively expressed on fat basis and are within FAO tolerances and similar to those found in other tropical countries.