Irrigation Schemes Research Articles

Making a Modern U.S. West: The Contested Terrain of a Region and Its Borders, 1898–1940 by Sarah Deutsch (review)

Reviewed by: Making a Modern U.S. West: The Contested Terrain of a Region and Its Borders, 1898–1940 by Sarah Deutsch Sheila McManus Deutsch, Sarah–Making a Modern U.S. West: The Contested Terrain of a Region and Its Borders, 1898–1940. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2022. 640 p. Sarah Deutsch’s mammoth new tome on the United States West in the early twentieth century brings a fresh interpretive lens to these decades and draws new connections between familiar events. Its sheer size allows for both high-level thematic analyses and rich, granular case studies of how “what is usually placed at the margin” (p. 7) was central to the West’s history before the Second World War. Making a Modern West incorporates methodological insights from recent North American borderlands historiography into its nuanced discussion of how race, gender, and citizenship were used to shape the West’s communities, politics, and economies. Deutsch begins with the United States’ 1898 victory in the Spanish-American War and seizure of Hawaiʻi, the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico. The war “provided the nation’s policymakers and promoters and their audience with a new framework for western struggles over land, rights, and the nature of democracy and relegitimized both white supremacy and the concept of whiteness” (p. 5). US imperialism in the Pacific and these new territorial claims get little attention in the rest of the book and it is unfortunate that they only appear as a framing mechanism, but that starting point sets up her key theme of how multiple, new boundaries between insiders and outsiders were drawn in the West between 1898 and 1940 (p. 3). The book is divided into four parts, each covering one decade and three chapters. In Part I, “Demarcating, 1898–1910,” Deutsch explores the creation of a wide range of new divisions across the West, including between “the natural world” and built environments, the dusty past and shiny future, and among people (p. 13). Chapter 1, “Man and Nature,” focuses primarily on early irrigation and conservation schemes, the tensions between competing visions, and how they allowed the federal government to demonstrate their scientific modernity by dominating the landscape and enabling their White agrarian fantasies. The following chapter, “The Changing Meaning of Crossing Lines,” discusses cross-border landholding and development in the US-Mexico borderlands as well as “the patchwork quilt of changing racial formations at local, transnational, and imperial levels and the competing forces that deployed them, including colliding diasporas of workers” (p. 51) across both the US-Mexico and the BC-Washington borders. Chapter 3 is a case study of the Black town of Boley, Oklahoma, which became a microcosm of debates over race, manhood, citizenship, landholding, and the spaces in between, as Black, Creek, and White people debated what race and relationships were supposed to mean and look like. Part II, “Agitating, 1910–21,” describes some of the challenges to those “purportedly neat” racial, gendered, political, and environmental categories, including the Mexican Revolution, robust labour and farmers’ movements, White women’s struggles to get the vote for themselves, and disputes over the United States’ entry into the First World War. Chapter 4, “Revolution and Revolutionaries,” discusses the Revolution’s effects on radical politics across the US West and the [End Page 207] ways it “made credible the possibility of radical change in the United States” (p. 133). Chapter 5, “Women and Their Alliances,” focuses primarily on White women’s efforts to get the vote for themselves, and allies like the organized White farmers. The third chapter in this section, “Global Conflict and Local Strife,” examines the remarkable wave of upheaval across the West in 1917. In the same year that the United States joined the First World War, there were heated battles over labour rights in a range of primary sectors and women’s suffrage; between White ranchers and Indigenous Peoples over land rights; and between anti-immigrant politicians and Southwest growers who needed cheap, disposable Mexican labour to work in their fields. The war itself sharpened debates over who “really” belonged in the United States and deserved to call themselves a citizen. The section ends with the 1921 Tulsa...

Review on Drip Irrigation: Impact on Crop Yield, Quality, and Water Productivity in China

The scarcity of freshwater resources is a global concern that is exacerbated by an increasing global population and climate change induced by global warming. To address this issue, the largest water-consuming sector has taken a series of measures termed as drip irrigation schemes. The primary purposes of drip irrigation are to reduce water scarcity near the root zone, reduce evaporation, and decrease water use. The application scope of drip irrigation is getting wider and wider, with the number of papers related to drip irrigation increasing year by year from 1990 to 2022. This study reviews crops planted in China that had been irrigated by drip irrigation equipment. The effects of drip irrigation technology on crop growth, physiology, quality, yield, and water use efficiency are summarized. This paper also provides an overview of drip irrigation technology on crop root development and nitrogen uptake. Through a global meta-analysis, it is found that in the case of water shortage, drip irrigation can save water and ensure crop yield compared to flooding irrigation, border irrigation, furrow irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, and micro-sprinkler irrigation. When the drip irrigation amount is more (100–120%), drip irrigation significantly increases crop yields by 28.92%, 14.55%, 8.03%, 2.32%, and 5.17% relative to flooding irrigation, border irrigation, furrow irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, and micro-sprinkler irrigation, respectively. When water resources are sufficient, increasing the amount of drip irrigation also improves crop yield. Moreover, the researchers found that drip irrigation can reduce fertilizer leaching and soil salinity. However, more studies should be conducted in the future to enrich the research on drip irrigation. In conclusion, drip irrigation technology is effective in improving crop growth, water use efficiency, and reducing water scarcity while decreasing fertilizer leaching and soil salinity, making it an ideal solution to the issue of freshwater resource scarcity globally.

Increased malaria incidence following irrigation practices in the Endorheic Rift Valley Basin of Sidama Region, Ethiopia.

Water resource development practice such as irrigation is key to ensuring economic growth and food security in developing countries. However, unintended public health problems such as malaria linked to such development projects have been a concern. This study aimed to determine the impact of irrigation on malaria incidence and vector mosquito abundance in southern Ethiopia. Eight years' malaria morbidity data were extracted from the medical registers of health facilities in both irrigated and non-irrigated settings. Additionally, adult and larval malaria vector surveys were carried out in both irrigated and non-irrigated villages. The trend of malaria incidence, case distribution across age and sex, seasonality, parasite species proportion, and mosquito density were analyzed and compared between irrigated and non-irrigated villages. The result showed that annual mean malaria incidence was 6.3 higher in the irrigated (95% CI: 0.7-33.6) than in the non-irrigated villages (95% CI: 1.2-20.6). Although a remarkable declining trend in malaria incidence was observed for four successive years (2013-2017), a significant resurgence between 2018 and 2020 was noted following the introduction of irrigation schemes. The densities of adult Anopheles mosquitoes were 15-fold higher in the irrigated compared to non-irrigated villages. Of the total potential mosquito-breeding habitats surveyed, the majority (93%) were from irrigated villages. Higher malaria incidence, adult Anopheles density, and mosquito-breeding habitat were recorded in the irrigated villages compared to non-irrigated villages. These observations have important implications for the effectiveness of existing malaria interventions. Environmental management could help reduce the breeding of malaria vector mosquitoes around irrigation schemes.

Declines in nutrient losses from China’s rice paddies jointly driven by fertilizer application and extreme rainfall

Rice production consumes large amounts of fertilizer and irrigation water and contributes to the non-point source pollution (NPSP) by delivering nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) through surface and subsurface fluxes. However, due to the lack of spatially detailed datasets we barely understand the temporal variations of nutrient fluxes or what the key drivers are. Here, we developed a data-driven model and a rice-specific dataset of fertilizer and irrigation schemes to quantify N and P loss fluxes from China’s rice paddies across 2320 counties during 1979–2018. Both of the surface and subsurface fluxes decreased, ∼16 % for N and ∼28 % for P over the past four decades. Instead of a steady decrease, the N surface and subsurface fluxes slightly increase at first, until decrease since 1999 at rates of − 1.2 and − 4.7 kiloton N yr−2, respectively. Similarly, the P surface and subsurface fluxes decline rates jumped to − 0.4 and − 0.2 kiloton P yr−2, respectively. N loss via subsurface flux was slightly prevailing compared with surface runoff, their trends were mainly driven by fertilizer application and extreme rainfall, respectively. P was primarily exported via surface runoff, with its trends jointly driven by extreme rainfall and fertilizer application, while the trends of subsurface P fluxes were largely driven by the latter. Consequently, N and P require different mitigation strategies, with N focusing on optimized fertilizer application and P on optimized water scheme. The combination of mitigation strategies on 20 % of the national rice sowing area accounted for 48 % of N and 70 % of P mitigation potentials under future warming. These findings suggest that we should implement regional specific policy interventions for critical regions and pathways, to effectively alleviate the national NPSP.

Condition and Performance Assessment of Irrigation Infrastructure at Agri-Parks in Gauteng Province, South Africa

South African agriculture accounts for 62% of the national water demand. Almost 45% of the water is wasted. Therefore, irrigation systems need to improve their water-use efficiency (WUE). However, the WUE of smallholder irrigation schemes in the country, including Agri-Parks, is not precisely known. A study was performed at four Agri-Parks (Rooiwal, Soshanguve, Tarlton, and Westonaria) in Gauteng province to assess the condition and performance of the irrigation systems, as part of a project that aimed to develop a WUE model for smallholder irrigation systems. The Agri-Parks were equipped with efficient irrigation systems in forms of drip and microjets. The assessments were performed at the system component level in February–March 2021. A Condition Assessment Model (CAM), developed by ARC-NRE/AE, was used for the condition assessment. Enumerators observed the system components visually and assigned conditions, which they uploaded into the model to generate condition indices (CIs). Water conveyance efficiency (CE) and distribution uniformity (DU) were assessed on delivery and infield systems, respectively. The CI values ranged 4–6, implying significant deterioration had occurred. The CE was 61–78%, while the DU was 60–95%. The infield system CI correlated positively with the DU, suggesting the CI could predict the DU in drip systems, which was encouraging for the proposed WUE model. However, further research covering a longer period and more Agri-Parks is recommended.

MODEL USAHATANI OPTIMAL PADA LAHAN KERING BERIRIGASI AIR TANAH DI KABUPATEN LOMBOK TIMUR

To overcome the problem of scarcity of water resources, the NTB Regional Government has built several groundwater irrigation services in East Lombok Regency. Given that the development of surface water irrigation schemes requires a lot of investment, the facilities built by the government must be used massively for the prosperity of the people. In general, the purpose of this study is to build a farming model that can provide the best income for farmers. In particular, the objectives of this study are to: 1) Examine the management system of groundwater irrigation schemes in meeting water needs for farmers. 2) Analyze changes in planting patterns, planting intensity and income of farmers who receive groundwater irrigation scheme services. 3) Build a farming model that can provide maximum income for farmers using groundwater irrigation schemes. 4) Analyze the factors that influence farmers in determining planting patterns. This research will be conducted in East Lombok District on the grounds that East Lombok District has the highest number of groundwater irrigation service schemes. Respondents of groundwater irrigation/pump management were determined by proportional random sampling in 3 villages with the most groundwater irrigation networks. Taking into consideration the distance and field terrain as well as the number of irrigation networks in the 3 villages, 6 management respondents were determined in North Pringgabaya Village, 4 in Labuan Lombok Village and 5 in Gunung Malang Village, so that all respondents managing this groundwater irrigation network amounted to 15 people (groundwater irrigation network). Farmer respondents were then selected based on respondents who managed the selected groundwater irrigation network. From the survey, it was determined that 5 (five) dominant commodities cultivated by farmers were corn, tobacco from the people, chilies, tomatoes and shallots. The number of farmers was set at 30 respondents on each type of crop cultivated, except for tomato plants only found 22 respondents. All respondents amounted to 142 farmers with a distribution of 69 people from North Pringgabaya Village, 40 people from Gunung Malang Village and 33 people from Labuan Lombok Village. The business model is built using a Linear Mathematical Model where the ABQM program is used to solve the solution. The results showed that the infrastructure for providing groundwater/pump irrigation networks was built by the government (subsidies) and management was handed over to the community. Its officers are elected by deliberation. Operational costs are borne by the community at a rate of Rp 35,000-Rp 60,000 per service hour depending on the amount of well water discharge. The provision of groundwater irrigation networks has changed the planting pattern of farmers, from planting once a year in the rainy season only with field rice or corn, to 2 or three plantings, commodities cultivated in addition to corn junga horticultural commodities such as one tomato chili and shallots, and plantation commodities, namely tobacco. The optimization results show that the planting pattern of onions and corn provides the highest income for farmers with a large income reaching Rp. 27,136,137.44. Farm income, land area, capital owned by farmers and the number of workers in the family are factors that determine farmers in choosing planting patterns to be applied.

Effect of biochar addition and reduced irrigation regimes on growth, physiology and water use efficiency of cotton plants under salt stress

To alleviate the salinity and drought stresses faced in agricultural production, and to improve crop water use efficiency (WUE) in drought-prone regions, novel management strategies are needed. The combination of biochar amendment and reduced irrigation regimes could mitigate the negative effects of salinity and drought stresses and improve WUE of cotton plants. A split-root pot trial was performed in order to investigate the effects of two biochar amendments [wheat straw pellets biochar (WSP) and soft wood pellets biochar (SWP)] combined with three irrigation schemes [full irrigation (FI), deficit irrigation (DI), and partial root-zone drying irrigation (PRD)] on the growth, physiology and WUE of cotton plants under two salinity levels [0 mM NaCl (S0) and 200 mM NaCl (S1)]. The results showed that salt stress depressed plant growth and physiology, and reduced seed cotton yield and lint yield by 19.33–47.22% and 40.43–58.81%, respectively. However, the biochar amendment alleviated salt stress and increased plant dry biomass allocation ratio by 3.85%–12.54%, 5.07%–14.39% and 9.78%–46.62% in boll, seed cotton and lint cotton under S1, respectively, and also increased lint ginning out turn (GOT), harvest index (HI), WUE at plant and yield level (WUEp and WUEy) by 0.21%–28.69%, 5.07%–14.39%, −0.30%–15.71% and 5.83%–32.44%, respectively. Moreover, WSP was superior to SWP in terms of improving plant growth and yield. PRD showed better growth and physiological effects than DI, especially WUEp and WUEy were 6.88%–13.73% and 9.16%–22.78% greater under PRD than under DI. The combined application of biochar and PRD counteracted the decrease in WUE caused by biochar application alone under S0. Collectively, WSP combined with PRD could be a promising strategy in sustainable cotton production under drought and salinity stress.

The influence of multi-stakeholder networks on the uptake of system of rice intensification among smallholder rice farmers in western Kenya

Multi-stakeholder platforms are useful in driving technology uptake by bringing together stakeholders in a value chain for joint agenda-setting and learning to address a common goal. In this paper, we analyze how multi-stakeholder networks unfold in an innovation platform for networking and capacity building to drive the uptake of the system of rice intensification (SRI) in Oluch irrigation scheme in western Kenya. An innovation platform (IP) was launched at Oluch irrigation scheme in Kenya to enhance networking among stakeholders and facilitate capacity building among farmers. We performed a network analysis to understand the patterns of knowledge exchange among stakeholders in the IP. We further explore the association between innovation platform characteristics and the uptake of SRI practices using regression analyses, correlation analyses and chi-square-tests. Our findings reveal that there was a substantial increase in the uptake of SRI that was largely driven by strategic networks. Extensionists and farmer groups emerged as the most important actors while farmer-to-farmer networks are still nascent in promoting SRI than expected but growing. We conclude by describing the describe a theory of change developed and experienced in the IP. While multi-stakeholder networks may be important drivers of technology uptake, there is a need for careful analysis of strategic networks within the IP that are core to achieving IP goals such as uptake of the technology and ensuring sustainability of the IP.

The Impacts of Applying Cobalt and Chitosan with Various Water Irrigation Schemes at Different Growth Stages of Corn on Macronutrient Uptake, Yield, and Water Use Efficiency

While previous studies have demonstrated the positive effects of low cobalt (CB) levels and chitosan (CH) on yield and nutrient status, information about their individual and combined applications on plants under stress is still lacking. Therefore, we conducted a study to investigate CB and CH impacts on mitigating water stress during growth stages and their effects on corn macronutrient uptake and yield. Four irrigation schemes were employed, including (1) control (full irrigation), (2) 70% of irrigation water during the vegetative stage, (3) 70% of irrigation water during the flowering stage, and (4) 85% of irrigation water during both the vegetative and flowering stages. The plants were treated with (7.5 mg l−1) CB injected into the irrigation water and CH foliar application (500 mg l−1), while distilled water was used as the control. Plants that were exposed to water stress during the flowering stage and treated with CB, or those subjected to water stress during the vegetative stage and treated with CH, showed increased macronutrient uptake and growth, which had a positive effect on yield and water use efficiency. However, when CB and CH were applied in combination, their potential to enhance these features depended on the pattern of water stress adopted. Overall, the application of CB and CH was effective in mitigating water stress, and their combined application was particularly effective when 70% of irrigation water was applied during the flowering stage. This approach resulted in the highest yield, macronutrient uptake, water use efficiency, and tolerance index.

A socio-hydrological investigation with groundwater models to assess farmer’s perception on water management fairness

Water management in the Upper Blue Nile (UBN) region of Ethiopia often entails fragmented efforts to supplement rainfed agriculture with surface water and reservoir-based irrigation schemes. On top of the broader climate change, drought and water food insecurity issues, the irrigation managers inability to accommodate farmer perceptions into sophisticated designs for resource utilization creates a fragile system from the root level. Driven by this, the objective of this research is to carry out a socio-hydrological investigation to highlight how hydrological models can be used to map farmers’ perception on irrigation water adequacy and water management fairness. The study uses predictions from a calibrated MODFLOW-NWT groundwater (GW) model in two irrigated communities of Ethiopia, namely, the Koga Reservoir (‘closed’ community) and the Quashni River (‘open’ community) irrigation project areas. Farmer perceptions were studied through detailed household surveys (n = 172 households), which were then statistically analyzed through logistic regression models under different sociological conjectures. The socio-hydrological investigation revealed that the local GW models were in good agreement with farmers’ raw perception on irrigation water adequacy, and the fairness of irrigation management. Findings from this research would help advance our understanding in socio-hydrological feedback of complex irrigation structures, as well as underscoring key sociological constraints of irrigation development in emerging communities.

The Field application efficiency Assessment of Paddy Field in Aceh Irrigation Scheme, Aceh, Indonesia

The efficiency of project irrigation is the main factor in measuring the irrigation system’s effectiveness in conveying and distributing the water to a paddy field. The efficiency of irrigation projects in Aceh adopted from Indonesian irrigation standards is 65% which is much higher than generally used in some countries in Asia, i.e., 35-46%. This high value is caused by neglecting water losses in the paddy field when determining the project’s irrigation efficiency. This results in insufficient water for the overall irrigable areas planned in the irrigation scheme in Aceh. The study is aimed to assess the field application efficiency by investigating the water losses in paddy fields. To conduct the research, the paddy field in Pandrah Irrigation Project is plotted specifically. A drum technique instrument was installed in the plot to measure the evapotranspiration, percolation, and effective rainfall based on water balance analysis in the drum in one paddy growing season. The results showed that the field application efficiency is 75.34%. meaning some of the water supply could not be effectively consumed by the paddy. Based on the investigation, most water losses in paddy fields are caused by preferential flow through macropores in vicinity bunds which were triggered by the movement of rats, paddy roots, and bad plow of the field. Therefore, it is recommended to investigate the water losses that will occur due to the above assumption by continuing research in the future, so the project efficiency might be stated accurately when planning irrigation projects in Aceh.

Stochastic Frontier Analysis of Technical Efficiency and Profitability of Dry Season OKRA Production in Nigeria

Food production in Nigeria is almost entirely rain fed despite the great potential of irrigation in Nigeria to boost agricultural productivity. The study assessed the profitability and efficiency of dry season irrigated okra farming in Adamawa State using primary data collected from 180 farmers through a simple random sampling technique. Profit efficiency and stochastic frontier function were used in analyzing the data. The result revealed that labor costs accounted for 48% of average variable cost while a farmer’s total revenue from irrigated okra produce was ₦228,642.56K ($408.2), total fixed cost and variable input cost was ₦102,440.37K ($182.93), resulting in a net farm income (NFI) of ₦126,201.63K ($225.36). The coefficients of farm size, household size, and fertilizer were positive and significant at the 1%, 10%, and 5% levels of probability, respectively, as revealed by the OLS results. Empirical estimate shows that the mean technical efficiency value of vegetable farmers was about 0.73 while Technical inefficiency coefficient of farming experience (−0.420), adjusted household size (−0.193), and extension contacts (−0.162) are variables that increased technical efficiency. Lack of access to water, high cost of equipment, and inadequate finance were identified as lead constraints of the okra farmers. Therefore, recommendations by the study are that farmers be encouraged to establish cooperative organizations so that they can pool their resources to create an irrigation system that is affordable. Also, sustainability of small scale irrigation scheme should be promoted by the government through skill enhanced trainings.

Evaluation of hydraulic efficiency of lined irrigation channels – A case study from Punjab, Pakistan

Abstract Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS) in Pakistan is the backbone of agriculture in the country. The IBIS provides irrigation support to agricultural lands across the country; however, hydraulic efficiency of the water conveyance system is impacted due to seepage losses. The lining of irrigation channels is considered a potential solution for improving hydraulic efficiency. Therefore, this study explores the impact of canal lining on the hydraulic efficiency of the canals in the Punjab province of Pakistan. Overall, 14 channels/distributaries/minors (total length 226 km) were monitored in terms of hydraulic performance in different irrigation zones. Hydraulic, geometrical, and socioeconomic parameters of channel/distributaries/minors including roughness coefficient, sediments, flow velocity, wetted parameter, breaches, theft cases, bed, side slope, water surface profile, hydraulic radius, crop yield, and vegetation growth area have been experimentally observed. Obtained results have been compared with the design and pre-lining data. Ten seepage tests using the inflow -outflow method and eight seepage tests using the ponding method were conducted to estimate seepage losses. Results indicate that almost all the parameters varied from the design values. A detailed comparison of the socioeconomic parameters has been carried out. Results from seepage tests show an approximately 78% reduction in losses.

The welfare enhancing effects of agricultural innovation platforms and soil monitoring tools on farming household outcomes in southeastern Africa

ABSTRACTUtilizing survey information obtained from five irrigation schemes in southeastern Africa, we investigated the influence of agricultural innovation platforms (AIPs) and monitoring tools on a range of farm and household outcome indicators. Doubly robust estimation was used to measure the effects of these interventions, with a variety of other methods used for robustness checks. Involvement in AIP activities and using monitoring tools was found to be statistically associated with increased on-farm income together with an increased capacity to fund child education. Participation in AIPs also had a significant positive influence on off-farm income and reduced food shortages. Moreover, spillover effects were accounted for in the estimations and statistically significant positive effects were found regarding on-farm income for non-participants. These findings suggest that interventions with strong agricultural innovation system approaches in irrigation schemes in Africa could provide significant societal benefits.

Farmers’ perception and management of water scarcity in irrigated rice-based systems in dry climatic zones of West Africa

Water scarcity threatens irrigated agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Knowledge of farmers’ perceptions and drivers for decision-making in view of coping with water scarcity is so far lacking but needed to improve local technologies and frame policies fostering their adoption. Here, for the first time, we investigated farmers’ perception of water scarcity, key adaptation strategies, and the determinants of their adoption in irrigated rice schemes in dry climatic zones of West Africa. We surveyed 572 farming households and conducted expert interviews with key informants in four contrasting irrigated rice schemes in Burkina Faso between April 2018 and August 2019. Information was gathered on biophysical field characteristics, grain yields, agronomic and water management practices, farmers’ perception of water scarcity, their adaptive responses, and social-economic attributes of adopting households. Nearly 80% of the respondents reported having experienced water scarcity during the past 5 years. To cope with the adverse effect of water scarcity, farmers implemented seventeen different adaptation strategies that could be categorized into seven groups. Most popular among those were “water and soil conservation practices” (consisting mainly of field bunding and leveling), “no rice cultivation,” and “crop rotation.” Farmers in drier areas (Sudano-Sahelian zone) were less likely to adopt and implement several adaptation strategies to water scarcity compared to farmers in wetter areas (Sudanian zone). Belonging to farming associations increased the probability of implementing several strategies to alleviate water scarcity, while female-headed households tended to have a lower propensity to adopt and implement concomitantly several adaptation strategies in comparison with their male counterpart. The dissemination of scheme- and household-specific technology options could contribute to mitigating water scarcity in irrigated rice-based systems in the dry climatic zones of West Africa, thus contributing to rural livelihood and food security.

Perception of climate change and coping strategies among smallholder irrigators in Zimbabwe

IntroductionAcross sub-Sahara Africa, governments and international aid agencies are making huge investments in smallholder irrigation schemes to enhance food security, climate resilience and economic transformation in rain-fed farming systems. Unfortunately, a majority of the smallholder irrigation schemes have performed dismally on these fronts. Climate change is a major exacerbating factor to existing challenges resulting in the poor performance of the schemes. Hence, it is crucial to understand smallholder irrigators' perceptions of climate change and current adaptation strategies to co-design appropriate and acceptable adaptation strategies to address water stress in the schemes. This area had received less significant research attention. This study aims to determine the perception of climate change and coping strategies in smallholder schemes.MethodsA mixed-method research strategy was used to collect data from 317 irrigation scheme farmers in three schemes (Exchange, Insukamini, and Ruchanyu) in Midlands Province. A binary logistic regression (BLR) method was used for data analysis.ResultsThe results suggest that scheme farmers have noticed changes in temperature and rainfall patterns. Results obtained from the model show that climate change perception was mainly influenced by age, gender, location, irrigation experience, and plot size. Farmers perceived that climatic change has resulted in decreased irrigation water availability, thus leading to poor yields. This study also shows that the main adaptation strategies to water stress include improving soil moisture conservation, construction of small-scale reservoirs, water charging and trade, setting clear water use priorities, and adoption of climate-resilient and short-season crop varieties. Perception of high temperatures, long dry periods, late rainfall, increase in the frequency of drought, shortening of cold season, and shortening of rain season influence adaptation strategies adopted by scheme farmers.ConclusionThis study offered useful data for policymakers and irrigation developers to develop appropriate policies and programs to improve the sustainability of schemes given current and projected water stress in Zimbabwe and sub-Sahara Africa in general.

Overwatering may be as detrimental as underwatering in container-grown kale (Brassica oleracea L. acephala)

Kale is a leafy green that contains nutritiously favorable secondary metabolites, like glucosinolates and carotenoids, and important mineral nutrients like Ca, Mg, P, K, and Fe. Limited information is available on how small changes in irrigation applications using sensor-based irrigation affects plant growth. In this study, ‘Winterbor’ kale was grown in containers with soilless media using sensor-based irrigation schemes applying three treatments –overwatered, optimal, and underwatered – in the greenhouse at the North Mississippi Research and Extension Center, Verona, MS, USA. Overwatering and underwatering treatments resulted in smaller morphological features when compared to optimally treated but did not vastly differ from each other. Fresh mass of kale was the greatest for optimally treated plants, with the underwatered treatment having reduced mass but greater than that of the overwatered treatment. Concentrations for mineral nutrients, glucosinolates, and pigments changed alongside of gas exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence measurements all having temporal and treatment changes. Apparent nutritional content of kale leaves was significantly reduced for overwatering and underwatering treatments compared to optimal treatments yet underwatered treatments had little to no impact on favorable secondary metabolites and mineral nutrients.

A not of Resurgence of the Cotton Stemborer Sphenoptera gossypii Conte as a Serious Pest in the Irrigated Schemes in Sudan

this study was conducted to investigate complaints by farmers in New HalfaAgricultural Corporation (NHAC), Gezira Scheme, Rahad and Suki agricultural schemesabout wilting, drying and death of cotton plants during the 2012-2013 season which wasthe first season for planting the genetically-modified Bt cotton (CN-CO2). A survey wasconducted and showed drying and death of young plants and wilting of older ones. Alongitudinal section of the stem revealed the presence of white worms of up to 3 cm inlength and white shiny pupae, together with coleopteran beetles. The insect wasidentified as Sphenoptera gossypii. The damage was mainly in the variety CNCO2 butindividual plants of the local varieties Hamid, Abdeen and Barakat were also infestation.The highest percentage of infestation was 30% in NHAC while the average infestationwas 2% to 3% in the Gezira scheme and was little in the Rahd scheme. The stem borerwas a serious pest of cotton in the 1920s and 1903s but as a result of clean-up campaignsand adherence to technical guidelines the local varieties, except Sakel, could surviveunaffected. Introduction of the extremely susceptible variety (CNCO2) in large areas inthe irrigated schemes, which are plentiful of the pest, led to serious damage to the crop.During October 2012, farmers from New Halfa Agricultural Corporation(NHAC) complained of drying, wilting and death of cotton plants in theirfields; the incident was especially higher in the introduced geneticallymodified Bt cotton variety (CN-CO2) than on the local variety "Hamid".The season (2012-13) ranked first, for commercial planting of the Btcotton in NHAC, and other irrigated schemes in Sudan. Thus, the Btcotton was blamed as a causative of the incident. The CN-CO2 seeds

Making technological innovations accessible to agricultural water management: Design of a low-cost wireless sensor network for drip irrigation monitoring in Tunisia

Unsustainable use of water resources and climate change will exacerbate the existing tensions surrounding resources, especially in the Mediterranean context. Despite investments in costly modern equipment, the performance of irrigated agriculture remains below expectations, notably because of the lack of available water data and the limited use of decision support tools. Although a variety of soil moisture sensors are available on the market, they are not widely used by the agricultural community because of their high cost and complexity. Access to information at an unprecedented level, via easily accessible low-cost and low-tech sensors, may be a major lever for improved identification of achievable gains in performance, and to guide actors toward efficient water management. To explore this hypothesis, an open source wireless soil moisture sensor, low-energy and economically and technically accessible, was developed. The tool was designed according to water users’ requirements and applied to a Tunisian irrigation scheme subject to major water use efficiency issues. The functioning of the wireless sensor network was tested on pilot plots over a growing season and compared with commercial sensors. A single parameter calibration can be performed in either the laboratory or the field. This low-cost sensor can be used for real-time irrigation monitoring and as a decision-making tool for water management.

Effect of Irrigation Water Management on Growth of Date Palm offshoots (Phoenix dactylifera) under the River Nile State Conditions*

the objective of this study was to investigate the effect ofdifferent irrigation water managements on the vegetative growth of datepalm offshoots. The experimental work was conducted at the JordanianBashair project in the River Nile State, for two consecutive seasons (2007and 2008). Two irrigation methods were used with three amounts ofirrigation water. The irrigation methods were the conventional basinsystem and two bubbler types, a locally made and an imported bubbler(Rain bird). The amounts of irrigation water were 50%, 75% and 100% ofthe crop irrigation requirement, as determined by CROPWAT computermodel version 2003, using the average of 30 years data. Data werecollected on plant height, stem size and number of leaves per offshoot, atage 12 months. The treatment affected significantly (P< 0.01) the growthparameters. The imported bubbler gave the highest mean values ofgrowth parameters, while the basin irrigation gave the lowest values. Thesame result was obtained with 100% Etc, compared with 75 % and 50 %Etc. The interaction of the irrigation system and amount of wateringsignificantly affected the growth parameters. The imported bubbler with100% Etc gave the highest average values of growth parameters, andbasin irrigation with 50% Etc showed the lowest values.