Fruit Bodies Of Basidiomycetes Research Articles

Antibacterial and Antifungal Activity of Metabolites from Basidiomycetes: A Review.

Background/Objectives: The search for new antimicrobial molecules is important to expand the range of available drugs, as well as to overcome the drug resistance of pathogens. One of the promising sources of antibacterial and antifungal metabolites is basidial fungi, which have wide biosynthetic capabilities. Methods: The review summarized the results of studying the antimicrobial activity of extracts and metabolites from basidiomycetes published from 2018-2023. Results: In all studies, testing for antibacterial and antifungal activity was carried out in in vitro experiments. To obtain the extracts, mainly the fruiting bodies of basidiomycetes, as well as their mycelia and culture liquid were used. Antimicrobial activity was found in aqueous, methanol, and ethanol extracts. Antimicrobial metabolites of basidiomycetes were isolated mainly from the submerged culture of basidiomycetes. Metabolites active against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria and mycelial and yeast-like fungi were identified. Conclusions: Basidiomycete extracts and metabolites have shown activity against collectible strains of bacteria and fungi and multi-resistant and clinical strains of pathogenic bacteria. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values of the most active metabolites ranged from 1 to 16.7 µg/mL.

TECHNOLOGY FOR ISOLATION AND STUDY OF THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MELANIN FROM THE BASIDIOUS MUSHROOM BOVISTA PLUMBEA

The results of the development of a technology for the isolation of melanins from the basidiomycete mushroom Bovista plumbea collected in the territory of Tashkent and the Tashkent region of the Republic of Uzbekistan are presented. A technological scheme for obtaining melanins from basidiomycetes has been developed, which includes the following stages: drying, grinding of raw materials, purification, water extraction, filtration, concentration, acidification, centrifugation, dissolution, washing, drying. By water extraction, melanins were isolated, which are dark brown, alkali-soluble powder, with a molecular weight of 55686 Da, the content of which in the extract was 15.35%, respectively, which indicates the prospects of this type of raw material for obtaining drugs based on them. When studying the elemental composition of melanins obtained from the fruiting bodies of basidiomycetes by the method of water extraction, it was found that they contain 9.706% nitrogen, 55.831% carbon and 7.203% hydrogen. UV and IR spectroscopy was used to confirm that the obtained samples belonged to the category of melanins. The IR spectra of melanin isolated from the fruiting body of the basidiomycete were studied. Melanins are characterized by absorption bands in the region of 1690-1590 cm-1, indicating the presence of conjugated aromatic bonds in their structure. There is also a wide absorption band in the region of 3430-3100 cm-1, which is due to the presence of polyphenolic and OH groups. UV spectral analysis for the content of melanin in fractions of basidiomycete raw materials showed the presence of absorption bands in the region of 320-380 nm, corresponding to the characteristic absorption bands of melanin.

Chitinases Play a Key Role in Stipe Cell Wall Extension in the Mushroom Coprinopsis cinerea.

The elongation growth of the mushroom stipe is a characteristic but not well-understood morphogenetic event of basidiomycetes. We found that extending native stipe cell walls of Coprinopsis cinerea were associated with the release of N-acetylglucosamine and chitinbiose and with chitinase activity. Two chitinases among all detected chitinases from C. cinerea, ChiE1 and ChiIII, reconstituted heat-inactivated stipe wall extension and released N-acetylglucosamine and chitinbiose. Interestingly, both ChiE1 and ChiIII hydrolyze insoluble crystalline chitin powder, while other C. cinerea chitinases do not, suggesting that crystalline chitin components of the stipe cell wall are the target of action for ChiE1 and ChiIII. ChiE1- or ChiIII-reconstituted heat-inactivated stipe walls showed maximal extension activity at pH 4.5, consistent with the optimal pH for native stipe wall extension in vitro; ChiE1- or ChiIII-reconstituted heat-inactivated stipe wall extension activities were associated with stipe elongation growth regions; and the combination of ChiE1 and ChiIII showed a synergism to reconstitute heat-inactivated stipe wall extension at a low action concentration. Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) images showed that the inner surface of acid-induced extended native stipe cell walls and ChiE1- or ChiIII-reconstituted extended heat-inactivated stipe cell walls exhibited a partially broken parallel microfibril architecture; however, these broken transversely arranged microfibrils were not observed in the unextended stipe cell walls that were induced by neutral pH buffer or heat inactivation. Double knockdown of ChiE1 and ChiIII resulted in the reduction of stipe elongation, mycelium growth, and heat-sensitive cell wall extension of native stipes. These results indicate a chitinase-hydrolyzing mechanism for stipe cell wall extension.IMPORTANCE A remarkable feature in the development of basidiomycete fruiting bodies is stipe elongation growth that results primarily from manifold cell elongation. Some scientists have suggested that stipe elongation is the result of enzymatic hydrolysis of cell wall polysaccharides, while other scientists have proposed the possibility that stipe elongation results from nonhydrolytic disruption of the hydrogen bonds between cell wall polysaccharides. Here, we show direct evidence for a chitinase-hydrolyzing mechanism of stipe cell wall elongation in the model mushroom Coprinopsis cinerea that is different from the expansin nonhydrolysis mechanism of plant cell wall extension. We presumed that in the growing stipe cell walls, parallel chitin microfibrils are tethered by β-1,6-branched β-1,3-glucans, and that the breaking of the tether by chitinases leads to separation of these microfibrils to increase their spacing for insertion of new synthesized chitin and β-1,3-glucans under turgor pressure in vivo.

Influence of mineral substances on the synthesis of volatile organic compounds by Pleurotus ostreatus in the process of solid phase cultivation

Mineral substances play an important role in ensuring high-grade growth and high organoleptic quality of the fruit bodies of basidiomycetes. In the process of solid-phase cultivation of the mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.: Fr.) Kumm. the lignocellulosic substrates were enriched with mineral additives of calcium, iron and selenium. Their influence on the synthesis of volatile aroma compounds was investigated by the methods of sensory profile analysis and ultraviolet spectroscopy. Mineral additives in the form of CaCl2, FeSO2•7H2O and Na2SeO3 salts were added to the substrate (sunflower husk, barley straw) before sterilization in concentrations that correspond to the physiological needs of the mushrooms. When carrying out a sensory profile analysis of dried fruit bodies, the following attributes of the flavor were determined: mushroom, woody, sweet, herbaceous, fish, meat, floral, earthy, acidic, putrescent. The conducted profile analysis showed an unequal dependence of the effect of mineral additives for each of the P. ostreatus strains. For IBK-549 and IBK-1535, an increase in the intensity of mushroom notes of aroma was observed with the addition of calcium and selenium to the husks, and for IBK-551, this was observed with the addition of iron and selenium to both substrates. The volatile aroma compounds were extracted with hexane at boiling point for 30 minutes. Absorption spectra were recorded in the wavelength range 200–330 nm. The examined extracts had light absorption maxima at 200–210 and 260–300 nm, which is typical for solutions of unsaturated compounds that have non-conjugated double bonds, saturated and unsaturated aldehydes and ketones. Additions of iron to the substrates increased the intensity of light absorption in comparison with the control. Additions of selenium selectively influenced different strains, and calcium ions did not significantly affect the change in the intensity of light absorption, and therefore the synthesis of volatile compounds by mushrooms. The level of synthesis of aroma-forming substances was higher when cultivating fungi on sunflower husks than on barley straw. This was confirmed both by the obtained aroma profiles and by the recorded absorption spectra of all examined strains. The study showed the possibility of influencing the organoleptic qualities of P. ostreatus fruiting bodies during solid-phase cultivation by supplementing the composition of lignocellulosic substrates with various mineral additives.

Lectins from Mycelia of Basidiomycetes.

Lectins are proteins of a nonimmunoglobulin nature that are capable of specific recognition of and reversible binding to the carbohydrate moieties of complex carbohydrates, without altering the covalent structure of any of the recognized glycosyl ligands. They have a broad range of biological activities important for the functioning of the cell and the whole organism and, owing to the high specificity of reversible binding to carbohydrates, are valuable tools used widely in biology and medicine. Lectins can be produced by many living organisms, including basidiomycetes. Whereas lectins from the fruit bodies of basidiomycetes have been studied sufficiently well, mycelial lectins remain relatively unexplored. Here, we review and comparatively analyze what is currently known about lectins isolated from the vegetative mycelium of macrobasidiomycetes, including their localization, properties, and carbohydrate specificities. Particular attention is given to the physiological role of mycelial lectins in fungal growth and development.

APHYLLOPHOROID FUNGI OF THE KIY ARCHIPELAGO. SPECIES COMPOSITION AND MYCOBIOTA CHARACTERISTICS

The analysis of the occurrence of aphyllophoroid fungi on islands of the Kiy Archipelago (Onezhskiy District, Arkhangelsk Region) is carried out for the first time. In total, 150 species of aphyllophoroid fungi were revealed. Among them, 10 species ( Amylocorticium suaveolens, Athelia phialophora, Atheloderma orientale, Dichomitus campestris, Odonticium septocystidia, Oxyporus millavensis, Postia floriformis, P. perdelicata, Scytinostroma parvisporum, Xylodon detriticus ) are indicated for the Arkhangelsk Region for the first time. A majority of the species revealed are saprotrophs on dead wood. The highest number of species (65) was recorded from Pinus sylvestris - the main stand-former in the archipelago. In local areas of floodplain ecotopes 36 alder-associated and 32 willow-associated species were recorded. Because of heavy human pressure on the archipelago's ecosystems, only 7 ground-dwelling aphyllophoroid species were revealed ( Coltricia perennis, Hydnellum aurantiacum, H. ferrugineum, H. suaveolens, Phellodon tomentosus, Sarcodon imbricatus, Thelephora terrestris ). Botryohypochnus isabellinus was found on fruit bodies of basidiomycetes, and Typhula setipes was spotted on fallen alder leaves. 18 species are considered as indicators of biologically valuable forests, 7 species are included in regional Red Data Books.

Antibiotic activity of bacterial endobionts of basidiomycete fruit bodies

Bacterial strains (93 isolates) capable of growth on full-strength nutrient media were isolated from 86 fungal fruit bodies collected in the Moscow region. Antimicrobial activity of the endobiont isolates against 12 bacterial and fungal test strains (including drug-resistant ones) was studied in submerged cultures. Most of the strains (84.9%) were found to produce antibiotic compounds with different antimicrobial properties, including antifungal activity in 18.3% of the strains. Morphological characteristics and analysis of the 16S rRNA gene sequences were used to determine the taxonomic position of 16 bacterial strains of the following 10 species: Bacillus subtilis, Ewingella americana, Pseudomonas sp., Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, as well as Achromobacter spanius, B. licheniformis, Hafnia paralvei, Micrococcus terreus, Nocardia coeliaca, and St. rhizophila, which have not been previously known to be endobionts of basidiomycete fruit bodies. Antimicrobial activity of A. spanius, E. americana, H. paralvei, M. terreus, N. coeliaca, and St. rhizophila has not been reported previously. Complex mechanisms of symbiotic relations between fungi and bacteria, including those associated with antibiotic formation, probably developed in the course of co-evolution.

Bioaccumulation of the artificial Cs-137 and the natural radionuclides Th-234, Ra-226, and K-40 in the fruit bodies of Basidiomycetes in Greece.

The bioaccumulation of artificial Cs-137 and natural radionuclides Th-234, Ra-226, and K-40 by Basidiomycetes of several species is studied and evaluated in relation to their substratum soils. For this reason, 32 fungal samples, representing 30 species of Basidiomycetes, were collected along with their substratum soil samples, from six selected sampling areas in Greece. The fungal fruit bodies and the soil samples were properly treated and the activity concentrations of the studied radionuclides were measured by gamma spectroscopy. The measured radioactivity levels ranged as follows: Cs-137 from <0.1 to 87.2 ± 0.4 Bq kg(-1) fresh weight (F.W.), Th-234 from <0.5 ± 0.9 to 28.3 ± 25.5 Bq kg(-1) F.W., Ra-226 from <0.3 to 1.0 ± 0.5 Bq kg(-1) F.W., and K-40 from 56.4 ± 3.0 to 759.0 ± 28.3 Bq kg(-1) F.W. The analysis of the results supported that the bioaccumulation of the studied natural radionuclides and Cs-137 is dependent on the species and the functional group of the fungi. Fungi were found to accumulate Th-234 and not U-238. What is more, potential bioindicators for each radionuclide among the 32 species studied could be suggested for each habitat, based on their estimated concentration ratios (CRs). The calculation of the CRs' mean values for each radionuclide revealed a rank in decreasing order for all the species studied.

Bacterial communities in the fruit bodies of ground basidiomycetes

Fruit bodies of basidiomycetes at different stages of decomposition serve as specific habitats in forest biocenoses for bacteria and differ significantly with respect to the total bacterial population and abundance of particular bacterial genera. A significant increase in the total bacterial population estimated by the direct microscopic method with acridine orange staining and in the population of saprotrophic bacteria (inoculation of glucose peptone yeast agar) in fruit bodies of basidiomycetes Armillaria mellea and Coprinus comatus was recorded at the final stage of their decomposition in comparison with the initial stage. Gramnegative bacteria predominated in the tissues of fruit bodies at all the stages of decomposition and were represented at the final stage by the Aeromonas, Vibrio, and Pseudomonas genera (for fruit bodies of A. mellea) the Pseudomonas genus (for fruit bodies of C. comatus). The potential influence of bacterial communities in the fruit bodies of soil basidiomycetes on the formation of bacterial communities in the upper soil horizons in forest biocenoses is discussed. The loci connected with the development and decomposition of fruit bodies of basidiomycetes on the soil surface are promising for targeted search of Gram-negative bacteria, the important objects of biotechnology.

Protease inhibitors clitocypin and macrocypin are differentially expressed within basidiomycete fruiting bodies

Clitocypin and macrocypin are cysteine protease inhibitors of the mycocypin family which is unique to basidiomycetes. We have established that Clitocybe nebularis and Macrolepiota procera each contain genes for both macrocypin and clitocypin. Both are expressed in M. procera but only clitocypin in C. nebularis. Further analysis of mycocypin expression at the mRNA and protein levels in mature fruiting bodies of M. procera revealed that clitocypin is expressed evenly throughout the fruiting body, while the level of expression of macrocypins varies, and, at the protein level, is much higher in the veil fragments and the ring. The expression patterns of various mycocypins were determined in Coprinopsis cinerea, using promoters linked to a reporter gene. The expression profile of the clitocypin promoter was similar to that of the constitutive promoter gpdII from Agaricus bisporus, while that of the macrocypin 4 promoter was limited to the outer edges of the fruiting body throughout development. In addition, the activity of the macrocypin 3 promoter was different, indicating different regulation of expression for different macrocypin genes. The complex, tissue specific expression patterns for mycocypin genes suggest different biological roles for the products, either in regulation of endogenous proteases or in defense against pathogens or predators.

Fungal-specific PCR primers developed for analysis of the ITS region of environmental DNA extracts

BackgroundThe Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) regions of fungal ribosomal DNA (rDNA) are highly variable sequences of great importance in distinguishing fungal species by PCR analysis. Previously published PCR primers available for amplifying these sequences from environmental samples provide varying degrees of success at discriminating against plant DNA while maintaining a broad range of compatibility. Typically, it has been necessary to use multiple primer sets to accommodate the range of fungi under study, potentially creating artificial distinctions for fungal sequences that amplify with more than one primer set.ResultsNumerous sequences for PCR primers were tested to develop PCR assays with a wide range of fungal compatibility and high discrimination from plant DNA. A nested set of 4 primers was developed that reflected these criteria and performed well amplifying ITS regions of fungal rDNA. Primers in the 5.8S sequence were also developed that would permit separate amplifications of ITS1 and ITS2. A range of basidiomycete fruiting bodies and ascomycete cultures were analyzed with the nested set of primers and Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) fingerprinting to demonstrate the specificity of the assay. Single ectomycorrhizal root tips were similarly analyzed. These primers have also been successfully applied to Quantitative PCR (QPCR), Length Heterogeneity PCR (LH-PCR) and Terminal Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (T-RFLP) analyses of fungi. A set of wide-range plant-specific primers were developed at positions corresponding to one pair of the fungal primers. These were used to verify that the host plant DNA was not being amplified with the fungal primers.ConclusionThese plant primers have been successfully applied to PCR-RFLP analyses of forest plant tissues from above- and below-ground samples and work well at distinguishing a selection of plants to the species level. The complete set of primers was developed with an emphasis on discrimination between plant and fungal sequences and should be particularly useful for studies of fungi where samples also contain high levels of background plant DNA, such as verifying ectomycorrhizal morphotypes or characterizing phylosphere communities.

QuornTM Myco-protein - Overview of a successful fungal product

Fungi have provided food for man, primarily in the form of fruit bodies of basidiomycetes and a few ascomycetes, for thousands of years. Similarly, yeasts have provided dietary supplements (e.g. vitamins) in the form of beer and bread. However, it has not been until the last 18 years that a filamentous fungus has been deliberately cultured for use as a primary source of protein for people. This is the filamentous fungus Fusarium venenatum A3/5 (ATCC PTA-2684), which is grown in continuous flow culture to produce mycoprotein, which is sold under the trade name QuornTM in the UK, the USA and at least 8 other European countries, including Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands, Sweden and Switzerland.

きのこ中の９‐メチルスフィンゴイド塩基の分布およびりん脂質の流動性への影響

Cerebrosides, the representative sphingolipid in mushrooms, were isolated and purified from seven fruiting bodies of basidiomycetes, and their principal sphingoid base was confirmed to be 9-methyl-4-trans,8-trans-sphingadienine (9-methyl base). The 9-methyl base was also present in free ceramide, diglycosylceramide (diglucosyl type) and the acidic sphingolipid (phosphorylinositol-containing sphingolipid) fraction from the Maitake mushroom (Grifola frondosa), although usually in small amount. Examination was also made of the effects of fungal cerebroside on the fluidity of phospholipid liposomes by fluorescence depolarization of the hydrophobic fluorescence probe (1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene). The 9-methyl branched chain in fungal cerebroside molecules, as also with cis double bond in sphingoid base or fatty acid moieties, was found to effectively inhibit decrease in liposome fluidity as a result of cerebroside (30%) addition. The 9-methyl base in fungal cerebroside should thus have the same physiological functions as 8-cis unsaturated sphingoid bases in plants.

Mycoparasitism by Three Species ofDiplococcium(Hyphomycetes)

Abstract:The interactions between three species ofDiplococciumand their respective host fungi were investigated using light and transmission electron microscopy. Two types of interactions were detected:D. clarkiiandD. clavariarum,colonizing fruit bodies of basidiomycetes, produce appressoria with protrusions into the cell walls of the host fungi. The host reacts by apposition of secondary wall‐like material at the site of the interaction. Hyphae ofD. parcum,a species reported from wood and bark, were encircled by hyphae of another fungus, probably belonging to a species ofTulasnella.SinceD. parcumcould not be cultivated in pure culture, this association between both fungi indicates thatD. parcumwas parasitic on hyphae of the presumedTulasnellaspecies.

Discoloration following bark stripping wounds on Fraxinus excelsior

SummaryA total of 101 Fraxinus excelsior trees 8–32 cm in d.b.h. with bark stripping wounds caused by Alces alces and Cervus elaphus in Lithuania were cut, dissected and examined. The injuries ranged in age from 5 to 18 years, when the trees were 22–40 years old and were in the size range 6–24 cm d.b.h. For 5‐10 years old wounds, the mean length of associated wood discoloration was 804 × 201 cm, while in 16–18 years old wounds it was 912 × 144 cm. There was no correlation between wound age and extent of discoloration in the stems examined (r = 0.11). Tree d.b.h. and wound size (initial width × length) were correlated with the extent of discoloration (r = 0.43 and r = 0.20, respectively). The presence of complete wound occlusion had no significant effect on the length of columns of discoloration associated with wounds of 10 or more years old. The average occlusion rate during the first 10 years was 128 × 28 mm or 13 mm/year, correlating positively with the radial increment (r = 0.42). Amongst a total of 500 F. excelsior trees with wounds, 29 trees (5.8%) bore basidiomycete fruiting bodies. Most common was Phellinus punctatus, found on 12 (2.4%) stems, followed by Coniophora puteana (1.6%), Peniophora limitata (0.4%) and Datronia mollis (0.4%). Fungi most commonly isolated from discoloured wood were ascomycetes Phaeoacremonium rubrigenum, Phialophora malorum, Hypoxylon rubiginosum, Coniothyrium sporulosum, Libertella spp., Ophiostoma sp., and basidiomycetes Ischnoderma benzoinum, Ischnoderma resinosum, Tyromyces sp.

Fungal spores in faeces as evidence of fungus ingestion by sheep.

In Ireland, upland areas are becoming extensively planted with coniferous forest to which sheep are allowed access. Such forest produces many more fruiting bodies of basidiomycetes than the blanket bog on which it was planted. Faecal samples taken from hill and adjacent forest (Picea abies) grazing areas showed an autumnal increase in radiocaesium in the forest samples compared with the hill samples, and there was an indication of higher in vivo radiocaesium activity in the autumn, particularly in individual animals which are known to graze the forest. The peak faecal and in vivo radiocaesium levels coincided with the fungal growing season. A new method is presented using fungal spores, which proves the ingestion of fungi by sheep and permits the identification and quantification of the fungi consumed.

Fungal spores in faeces as evidence of fungus ingestion by sheep

In Ireland, upland areas are becoming extensively planted with coniferous forest to which sheep are allowed access. Such forest produces many more fruiting bodies of basidiomycetes than the blanket bog on which it was planted. Faecal samples taken from hill and adjacent forest ( Picea abies) grazing areas showed an autumnal increase in radiocaesium in the forest samples compared with the hill samples, and there was an indication of higher in vivo radiocaesium activity in the autumn, particularly in individual animals which are known to graze the forest. The peak faecal and in vivo radiocaesium levels coincided with the fungal growing season. A new method is presented using fungal spores, which proves the ingestion of fungi by sheep and permits the identification and quantification of the fungi consumed.

Uptake and accumulation of 137Cs by upland grassland soil fungi: a potential pool of Cs immobilization

Reports of high concentrations of fallout radiocaesium in basidiomycete fruit bodies after the Chernobyl nuclear reactor accident and speculation that fungi could be long-term 137 Cs accumulators led us to ask if fungi could be long-term 137 Cs accumulators. We used six common upland grassland species to try to estimate their importance in the immobilization of 137 Cs. Uptake of Cs by these species ranged from 44 to 235 nmol Cs g −1 d.w. h −1 . Efflux studies indicate that more than 40% of the Cs taken up is bound within the hyphae. We estimate that the fungal component of the soil could immobilize the total radiocaesium fallout received in upland grasslands following the Chernobyl accident.

Concentrations of radiocesium and potassium in basidiomycetes collected in Japan

Concentrations of 137Cs, 134Cs and 40K in about 60 mushroom samples (fruit bodies of basidiomycetes) belonging to 25 species collected in Japan have been studied. The levels of 137Cs varied very widely, ranging from <3 to 1520 Bq kg −1 (dry wt), while those of 40K were relatively constant. Concentrations of 137Cs in common edible mushrooms of Japan such as Lentinus edodes, Flammulina velutipes, Pleurotus ostreatus and Pholiota nameko were low (normally < 50 Bq kg −1, dry wt). Concentrations of 134Cs in many samples were below the limit of detection (usually < 5 Bq kg −1, dry wt). The median concentrations of 137Cs and 40K were 41 (dry wt) and 1150 Bq kg −1 (dry wt), respectively. From the 137Cs/ 40K ratios it was found that cesium rather than potassium was selectively taken up from the soils fungi such as Suillus granulatus and Lactarius hatsudake. The 134Cs/ 137Cs ratios in mushrooms are related to the depth of the mycelium in the soil. The effective dose equivalent due to the dietary intake of radiocesium through mushrooms was estimated to be only 1.6 × 10 −7 Sv.

Studies on airborne basidiospores

Basidiomycetes are well known to produce abundant airborne spores which have been implicated in both asthma and allergic rhinitis. The atmosphere in Tulsa has been monitored with Burkard Volumetric Spore Traps to determine the concentration, seasonal occurrence, and identity of airborne basidiospores. During 1987 basidiospores were present in the atmosphere during most of the year with peaks in June and September. Spores from 18 genera were identified from the atmosphere withCoprinus andAgaricus being the most abundant spores in the spring. These genera continued to be prominent during the late summer and fall whenGanoderma spores were also abundant. Field studies conducted in conjunction with air sampling have shown that basidiomycete fruiting bodies were also most prevalent during the spring and fall.