Basic Source Of Knowledge Research Articles

Myriad of factors involved in blood pressure control. Salt intake connects them all.

Long-lasting elevated blood pressure (BP), i.e. hypertension, is a major contributor to morbidity and mortality worldwide. As a multifactorial and systemic disease that involves multiple systems, hypertension remains a challenging disease to study. Models of hypertension are a basic source of knowledge to drive and support the discovery of the specific genetic, cellular, and molecular mechanisms underlying essential hypertension, as well as to discover and introduce new possible treatments to lower BP. Animal models of hypertension deliver a huge amount of information but it is important to choose the proper one for our scientific hypothesis. In this review, we discuss the physiological, and biochemical background of rodent models of hypertension through a systems approach and a myriad of mechanisms and pathways involved in blood pressure control. We also pay attention to how target organs and systems including the kidneys, vasculature, the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), and immunological system, interfere with each other, and their activity is differentially controlled by sodium delivery, which still remains a pivotal troublemaker.

Organisasi Pelajar Islam Indonesia Sulawesi Selatan 1950-1960

This study aims to provide an explanation regarding the role and activities of Indonesian Islamic student organizations in South Sulawesi 1950 – 1960. This study uses qualitative research with a historical approach, namely heuristics, source criticism, interpretation and historiography. Management of data presentation using the historical method. The results of the study show that the role of Indonesian Islamic Organizations in the regeneration system is introduced about improving the quality of knowledge to existing skills. Starting from the Basic Training level to Advanced Training, which introduces how the basic sources of knowledge are to build civilization by making community group designs about beneficial traditions in society. Meanwhile, PII's activities in South Sulawesi cover the fields of education, information and social affairs.

Content Quality and Audience Engagement Analysis of Online Videos for Anterior Lumbar Interbody Fusion

For the majority of patients, the Internet constitutes the first source of health information influencing their medical decision-making. We aimed to assess the quality of the online videos regarding anterior lumbar interbody fusion (ALIF). YouTube database was searched using 3 different phrases: "anterior lumbar interbody fusion", "ALIF", and "ALIF surgery". The first 50 videos for each phrase were selected. Video content was evaluated by 3 independent researchers using the DISCERN instrument. Qualitative data, quantitative data, and the source of upload were analyzed. A total of 24 videos were included. The mean DISCERN score was 38.21, indicating the poor quality of ALIF videos on YouTube. Video duration was positively correlated with DISCERN score (r= 0.71, P < 0.001) but not with the video power index (VPI). A negative correlation between time since upload and DISCERN score (r= -0.8 P < 0.001) was found. Furthermore, videos containing surgical complications, risk factors, and postoperative prognosis had a significantly higher DISCERN score. Neither DISCERN score nor a VPI correlated with the presence of intraoperative recordings. Videos including the explanation of the spine anatomy had a significantly higher number of likes (P= 0.018). Despite the increasing educational value of ALIF videos over time, the overall quality of YouTube videos on ALIF remains poor. However, the majority of videos can be recommended to the patient as an informative source of basic knowledge on the surgical details of the ALIF procedure. Longer video duration increases its quality without simultaneous negative influence on its popularity.

Realisms Interlinked: Objects, Subjects, and Other Subjects, by Arindam Chakrabarti

Realisms Interlinked is a sublime work. It reanimates theoretical philosophy with a distinctive synthesis of ideas and methods drawn from the common-sense metaphysics, epistemology, philosophy of mind, and philosophy of language of classical India (mainly via the Nyāya school) and twentieth-century analytic philosophy (mainly via Strawson). In pursuing this agenda, the book lights up a new possible future for the study of world and mind, rooted in a borderless history of philosophy that should hopefully be better known among coming generations of analytic philosophers. Partly for this reason, it provides a refreshing contrast to other recent metaphysical and meta-metaphysical atlases like Sider (2011), Chalmers (2012), Thomasson (2014), Hofweber (2016), and Bennett (2017). It deserves to be read alongside these works; while Chakrabarti doesn’t discuss them and they don’t discuss him, a conversation between the traditions would, I’ll suggest, prove illuminating. Before turning to a discussion of some key ideas in this wide-ranging book, let’s consider its overall shape. Although Chakrabarti is a realist, the primary goal of the book is to defend certain realism-links, which he first explored in his 1992 ‘I Touch What I Saw’ (which reappears as the first chapter). These links are neutral on the status of realism, serving instead to constrain one’s overall set of commitments, leading to consistent realism or anti-realism. Hence the book could have been given the clunkier title ‘(Anti-)Realisms Interlinked’. But while that alternative title would have better conveyed the primary goal, it would have failed to signpost the aims of many chapters, which are often friendlier to realism, and consistently opposed to subjective idealism. For besides defending metaphysical linking theses in chapters 7, 16, and 24, the book also supports key tenets of Naiyāyika and Strawsonian epistemology, and critically discusses non-realist classical Indian schools (especially Buddhism and Advaita Vedānta) and anti-realist British philosophers (especially Dummett). This current in the book includes chapters defending the outer-sense perceivability of properties (ch. 3) and the inner-sense perceivability of self and mental states (chs. 12-14), a chapter opposing dream-based arguments for idealism (ch. 8), chapters defending testimony as a basic source of knowledge (ch. 19) and non-inferential knowledge of other minds (ch. 17), a chapter containing an approving discussion of ‘Idealist Refutations of Idealism’ (ch. 6), and a chapter opposing Dummettian semantic claims from the case of our understanding of future-tense sentences (ch. 23). The book also features chapters friendly to Nyāya’s more surprising realist commitments, including realism about absences (ch. 25).

INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION PLANNING (IEP): EQUIPPING TEACHERS IN ADDRESSING LEARNERS’ DIVERSITY

This study aimed at exploring the formal and non-formal ways of producing learner’s profile that would aid in developing Individual Education Planning which would best suit learners’ needs, interest, strengths and weaknesses, thereby leading them in having holistic development. This research employed a qualitative technique in doing research, which according to Creswell (2003) delves mainly on inquiry to produce responses and themes. Forty-one grade 11 learners in Accountancy, Business and Management (ABM) and General Academic Strand (GAS) of Talangan Integrated National High Schoool, Nagcarlan, Laguna became the respondents for this study. Three methods of acquiring profile that was introduced in this study are home visitation, use of learners’ cardex, and homeroom guidance program. After one semester of conducting the aforementioned activities, written interview to the learners were done. The themes that were generated for home visitation are as follows: (1) Home visitation is a channel of ac acquiring basic knowledge for the learners’ situation at home, (2) way of uplifting learners’ by showing concern to his life outside school, (3) teacher’s basis for management of lesson and learners in classroom setting, (4) important for learners acquisition of confidence in being his real self at home and inside the classroom, (5) assessment of background of learners so teachers can institute appropriate discipline inside the classroom, (6) collaboration with learners’ family in ensuring utmost performance of learners, and (7) school’s duty to relate to community as part of learners’ environment. The use of learners’ cardex was seen as (1) source of basic knowledge of learners’ strength and weaknesses, (2) a monitoring agent that guides learners’ progress on a task or challenges he is encountering, (3) an assessment of learners’ needs and how teachers and parents can help, (4) a reminder to learners that everyone is unique and they need not to compare themselves to others, (5) a reward in itself when learners realize their achievements, (6) a mirror of learners life path which aids them in inner introspection, and (7) an important mechanism that aids learners in regular assessment of their development. Homeroom guidance program was deemed as (1) a way of nurturing themselves in other aspect of human development like spirituality, (2) a venue for learning and relearning lessons taught in schools, (3) a beneficial intervention when planned with specific activity, (4) a time set for learners and teachers to know and be acquainted with each other, (5) a special way to take away barrier between teacher and learner or between learners themselves, (6) an avenue that will aid teachers in developing lessons suited for the learners needs, and (7) a way to provide guidance for learners and motivate them to schooling. Lastly, better academic performance was observed when these three activities were done. Recommendation to teachers, parents, school heads, curriculum developers and future researchers were given at the end of the study.

Estimation of Post-Cracking Dissipation Capabilities of Fiber Reinforced Concretes in Three Point Bending Test Monitored with Application of Digital Image Correlation System.

Concretes with dispersed reinforcement are increasingly used in structural engineering. The basic source of knowledge on their application and design are the Model-Code 2010 guidelines. These guidelines, however, apply mainly to steel rebar reinforcement and are not fully sufficient in the analysis of the load-bearing capacity of elements made of concrete with dispersed reinforcement. Therefore, scientific research in this field is carried out continuously. The main goal of our work is to provide experimental data for the calibration of constitutive models of the cracking mechanics of concrete with reinforcement in the form of steel and polypropylene fibers. This article shows the possibility of using the digital image correlation system (DIC) to achieve this goal. The method of sample preparation and the method of conducting the tests were modeled on the recommendations contained in the PN-EN 14651: 2007 standard. The tests were carried out on prismatic elements with a notch loaded in a three-point bending setup. The results of standard strength tests are presented in the form of column graphs and tables. As an extension, the results of calculations of energy dissipated in fracture process are given. Moreover, the experimentally obtained graphs of the relationship between the force, displacement and crack opening were presented, which were supplemented with the images of crack development obtained with the use of DIC. The development of the crack net is characterized not only qualitatively but also quantitatively as a function of deflection or crack mouth opening displacement. Conclusions concerning the adopted research methodology and the tested materials are presented at the end of the article.

Immunohistochemical study on the expressions of neuropeptides in the superficial and deep gland of the third eyelid of pigs.

The superficial gland of the third eyelid (SGTE) and deep gland of the third eyelid (DGTE) are classified as accessory lacrimal glands. The aim of the present study was to immunohistochemically investigate the expression of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DβH), substance P (SP), galanin, neuropeptide Y (NPY), pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP), somatostatin and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) in the porcine SGTE and DGTE. We demonstrated the distribution patterns of VIP, DβH, SP, NPY and galanin in the nerve fibres in the SGTE and DGTE. None of somatostatin-, PACAP- and CGRP-immunoreactive (IR) nerve fibres were found in the SGTE and DGTE. The majority of VIP- and DβH-IR nerves fibres were found near to glandular acini, tubules, secretory ducts and blood vessels in the SGTE and DGTE. VIP-IR nerve fibres were found in external connective tissue in SGTE and DGTE and only in interlobular connective tissue in the SGTE. DβH-IR nerve fibres were found in interlobular and external connective tissue in the DGTE but not in the SGTE. Single galanin-, SP- and NPY-IR nerve fibres were observed in close proximity to acini and tubules in the SGTE and DGTE. Single galanin-, SP-, NPY-IR nerve fibres were found in close proximity to the secretory ducts in the DGTE, however only SP-IR nerve fibres were found near to the secretory ducts in SGTE. In conclusion, our research aims to highlight some aspects of SGTE and DGTE innervation in pigs and may also be a source of basic knowledge for further studies.

Refleksja o botanicznym starodruku ks. Krzysztofa Kluka, czyli o przypadku zawieszenia oświeceniowej literatury między czeskim piwem, polską nauką a litewskim przysłowiem

In the third volume of the botanical thesis, which was first published in 1779, priest Krzysztof Kluk expressed a positive opinion about czech hops. Because priest Kluk’s work became one of the basic sources of knowledge of agriculture among the wealthy gentry, opinions expressed by him formed views about botanical advantages and the economical usefullness of czech hog. The role of priest Kluk’s studies in Lithuania was so great, that a proverb came there into being „that one can’t be a good host, who doesn’t have Kluk’s work”. According to its message, the possesion of books of a specific author was an essential condition to success in agricultural activity.

Financial Management Importance for Financial Managers in Financial World in the Era of Globalization

In Financial management we cover all the aspects to cover the financial position. The basic purpose is that provide the full information to the management regarding the liquidity position of the Business, with the help of financial management provide the total turnover of the Business operation. Financial management provides the route how to main the good financial position of the Business. The basic function of financial management is to give the path to how to maintain material management. With the help of materiel management we can manage the total equation of material management. The financial management is the basic source of knowledge how to. Maintain the best material management. Just in system is very important in the manufacturing companies, financial management provide the road map how to implement the just in system. Financial management is the key of success for every Business man, who are engage in the financial activities on the massive level. Corporate culture is possible only with financial management. Financial management is the very beneficial for the all section of life.

Ancient Greek Rhetorical Speeches as a Source of Political Realism Idea

&lt;p&gt;From the perspective of the history of political and legal doctrines, the dichotomous way of looking at actuality through the prism of the struggle between realism and idealism is one of the classical approaches to social sciences. The basic source of knowledge for the political realism idea is the achievements of politicians, historians and philosophers, who are often at the same time creators of political and legal thought. In the research on political realism, however, one should, based on subsidiarity, also use the message found in the rhetorical speeches, recorded and preserved until today. Taking these reservations into account, the subject of the article is to analyze – in a rhetorical perspective – the classical political realism, with the simultaneous narrowing of the research field to international relations. The subject of the analysis are selected ancient Greek rhetorical speeches by authors such as Cleon, Diodotus, Pericles, Demosthenes, Andocides, Isocrates and Lysias.&lt;/p&gt;

Srpska i hrvatska velikodržavna politika i odnos prema Bosni i Hercegovini na primjeru udžbenika historije

Textbook literature is not only an interesting object of research, but also a kind of mirror of the society that produces them. In a way, they represent the basic source of knowledge for students, and their content represents a certain type of absolute truth or canonized knowledge. This is especially true for history textbooks, which show students what memory state systems not only recommend but also determine. This means that such textbooks are a reflection of the official attitude towards the past, so they are one of the most powerful instruments of action on the collective consciousness of young people, but also society as a whole. Namely, the "truth" that is built into school textbooks inevitably becomes a "living truth", having in mind the age and quantity of the reader's body. It does not take much intellectual effort to properly understand, then, the potential energy that ethnic prejudices loaded in this way, based on historical myths, half-truths and untruths, carry with them. Textbooks from Serbia and Croatia were imported and used in Bosnia and Herzegovina for a while, and in recent years the contents of textbooks from the mentioned countries have served as a template for the production of textbooks that are printed and published in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In all such textbooks, examples have been identified in which entire teaching units are dedicated to events, personalities and locations that are not from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Thus, for example, in terms of belonging to Bosnia and Herzegovina, negative examples dominate and the analyzed textbooks do not encourage the creation of a sense of a common heritage of Bosnia and Herzegovina. At the same time, students do not develop critical thinking, and explanations of historical-political processes are burdened with political interpretations that largely support valid auto and hetero-stereotypes. Policy options and processes are presented in a way that continues to support established attitudes about what has happened in the past, and current stereotypes about one's own and other peoples and their role in those processes. Having in mind, therefore, that the textbook content necessarily reflects the dominant ideology and current government policy, we tried to use the example of Bosnia and Herzegovina, to question the political function of the textbook, more precisely to show indicators of paternalistic attitude towards Bosnia and Herzegovina, which are generated through Serbian and Croatian education system both in the home countries and in Bosnia and Herzegovina itself. The question that is specifically posed here is twofold: To what extent are conflicts and ethnic tensions, which have been present in all societies throughout history, reflected in school textbooks, and to what extent do school textbooks themselves convey these conflicts. The latter entails further sub-questions, such as the extent to which the textbook medium intensifies conflicts and the extent to which it calms and breaks them down. The topic itself is very broad and almost forces it to be sketched in such a small space only theoretically, which is less useful. Therefore, attention will be focused here on selected specific examples that deal with individual historical events, which are the subject of public debate, or conflict between Serbian and Croatian historiography when it comes to the origin and affiliation of the population and state of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In this regard, this paper presents an "interpretation of the interpreted", with the prevalent use of secondary literature, given through a review of the opinions of selected authors. In doing so, an effort was made to consistently apply comparative analysis, to show and expose all the diversity of approaches of individual national and nationalist discourses.

The Idea of God in Descartes' Epistemology

Descartes, epistemolojisinde açık ve seçik bilginin elde edilmesinde şüphe yöntemini kullanarak düşünce tarihinde önemli bir yer edinmiştir. Duyular aracılığıyla elde edilen bilgiler başta olmak üzere sahip olunan bütün bilgileri şüphe süzgecinden geçirmiştir. Daha sonra, düşünme edimini esas alarak bilginin temel kaynağının zihin olduğunu ileri sürmüştür. Ontoloji ve epistemolojisini düşünme ediminden hareketle ve şüphe yöntemini kullanarak temellendirmiştir. Çalışmamızda ilk olarak Descartes’ın hakiki bilgiye ulaşmada nasıl bir yol izlediği, hangi ilkeleri benimsediği ele alınmıştır. İkinci aşamada, Descartes’ın bilgiden hareketle Tanrı fikrine geçişi incelenmiştir. Bu bağlamda, metafizik anlayışının temelleri, Tanrı’nın bilinebilirliği, Tanrı kanıtlaması, Tanrı fikrine neden ihtiyaç duyduğu vb. konular irdelenmiştir. Çalışmamızın amacı, Descartes’ın kesin ve sağlam kabul ettiği bilgi görüşü ile Tanrı fikri arasındaki ilişkinin nasıl olduğunu açıklamak, Tanrı’yı metafizik alana sıkıştırmayıp, epistemoloji ile bağıntısının anlaşılmasına dikkat çekmektir.

Anti-personnel Landmines in Modern Armed Conflicts. Legal Regulations and the Scope of Application

The aim of the research presented in the article is both to describe and analyse the problem of use of the anti-personnel mines in armed conflicts and the subsequent effects that landmines, in particular anti-personnel mines, have on human health and life. The article discusses a number of problems to solve related to the land mine use long after the end of the armed conflict. The basic source of knowledge concerning legal regulations determining the use of anti-personnel mines are international conventions. In Polish scientific literature, it is difficult to find materials that contain, apart from the contents of the documents themselves, comments and interpretations on the application of international law. In order to explore the above-mentioned issues, it was necessary to make use of the studies of international organizations. The issue of anti-personnel landmine threat and the support to their victims is widely presented in the work of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), the International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL), human rights organizations, and others.

User-generated Content as a Source of Knowledge About Destination Image on the Example of Kołobrzeg

Purpose. The aim of the study was to assess factors influencing the image of a destination expressed in the content generated by Internet users. Available analyses indicate that the basic sources of knowledge about destinations are word-of-mouth (including those published in content generated by Internet users) and data on the web. Within the context of constantly growing access to the Internet, it is impossible to overestimate the data provided on it. The way they are searched, collected and analysed is a significant challenge for researchers. Method. Research was conducted on the basis of the content analysis method. The analysis included content generated by users of the TripAdvisor, Zoover and Twitter platforms about the city of Kolobrzeg. To obtain data, an indexing robot (web crawler) was used. Findings. The conducted research indicates the usefulness and importance of the content analysis method in the evaluation of determinants shaping the image of a destination. Evaluation of the content published on the analysed websites allows to identify a positive image of Kołobrzeg. The most significant factors in evaluating the image of Kołobrzeg are tourist attractions and events as well as foodservices and accommodation facilities. Research and conclusions limitations. The study covered only the content published on open Internet platforms, which do not require logging in or access to hidden data. Only textual content was analysed, without published photos or images. The results refer to one destination and to content obtained from 3 selected social networking sites: Zoover, TripAdvisor and Twitter. It is not possible to generalise them to all destinations. Practical implications. In the study,a number of potential issues have been identified. They should be considered in the process of destination image creation. The results can be used by local authorities and tourism organisations responsible for promotion. They may also serve as a basis for the development of promotional materials by entrepreneurs who wish to adjust their offers to the expectations of the target audience. Originality of paper. Research on the image of destinations are usually based on survey methods and obtaining direct feedback from the addressees of the offer. The study conducted by the author is based on analysis regarding the content of opinions published by the Internet users, which allows for triangulation of information sources. The results of the study allowed to determine the most important factors influencing the image of Kolobrzeg. Type of paper. Empirical article.

Hepatoprotective and antioxidant activity of ethanolic leaves extract of Avicennia marina against alcohol-induced liver toxicity in rats

Plants play an important role in the life of human, as the major source of food, as well as for the maintenance and improvement of health and for the elimination of the enemies since ages. Plants are the basic source of knowledge of modern medicine. The present study was conducted to evaluate the hepatoprotective activity of ethanolic leaves extract of Avicennia marina are evaluated in alcohol induced hepatotoxicity in rats. Silymarin (100mg/kg) was given as reference standard. The ethanolic leaves extract of Avicennia marina have shown very significant hepatoprotection against alcohol induced hepatotoxicity in albino rats in reducing SGOT, SGPT, Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and GGT and levels of total bilirubin and total protein were investigated and showed an increase in alcohol induced rats when compared to control. The extracts of the test plant exhibited significant (p &lt; 0.01) hepatoprotective activity against the alcohol induced liver models by improving liver function which was indicated by reduction in the levels of SGOT, SGPT, ALP, GGT, total bilirubin and total protein. Keywords: Avicennia marina, Hepatoprotective, Liver Enzymes, Silymarin

The influence of bilberry fruit on memory and the expression of parvalbumin in the rat hippocampus.

Therefore, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the possible effect of bilberry fruit (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) supplement in a daily diet on the cognitive behaviour of the rats and the expression of paravalbumin (PV) in populations of hippocampal neurons. It has been postulated that the antioxidants present in bilberry fruit may act as neuroprotective factors playing also a significant role as memory enhancements. Forty Wistar rats with a similar average body weight (460 ± 0.4 g) were divided into four groups (n=10 per group). The control group received standard feed (210 g/week), whereas animals of experimental groups received standard feed supplemented with bilberry (per os) at consumed doses of 2 g (group I), 5 g (group II), and 10 g/kg b.w./ /day (group III). After three months of feeding with bilberry, the modified elevated plus-maze test (mEPM) was performed. After 32 weeks of feeding, brains were collected and PV-immunoreactive (ir) neurons were immunohistochemically visualized. In the modified elevated plus-maze test, transfer latency examined 2 h and 24 h after the acquisition session was significantly shorter (p⟨0.05) in the group II in comparison with the control group. In CA1 and CA2/CA3 hippocampal fields as well as dentate gyrus of all experimental groups, a significant (p⟨0.05) decrease in number of PV-ir neurons were found. In relation to the control group, the mean subpopulation of PV-ir neurons found in groups II and III were significantly reduced. The subpopulations of PV-ir neurons found in DG of all experimental groups were significantly reduced in comparison to the control. In conclusion the in the present paper we demonstrated a relationship between the diet rich in a bilberry fruit and process of memory as well as numbers of calcium- binding protein-expressing hippocampal neurons. Our results may be source of basic knowledge for further research aiming at neuroprotective role of the bilberry fruit.

Sadržaji društvenih nauka u udžbeniku Prirode i društva iz ugla učenika

The school textbook still represents the basic source of knowledge and the starting point for self-learning in Serbia today. The expertise obtained during the last decade has shown certain improvements in terms of the design and structure of textbooks, but serious problems were also discovered concerning the presentation of contents which introduce students to complex social phenomena and teach about the complex social reality. This paper presents some of the results of the research that examined the students' perception of the role of the textbook in the adoption of social contents in the subject Nature and Society. The experiment design involved 60 fourth-grade primary school students from Serbia, who are learning social contents from textbooks. By using the method of focus group discussions, this research examined the opinions of students, aged 10-11 years, about the textbook from which they are learning about social contents. The analysis of the data revealed the satisfaction of the students in terms of the overall appearance of textbooks, its structure and transparency, while the negative sides determined: repeating similar information from unit to unit, extensive text and too much content to be remembered, lack of interesting texts, incentive and motivational tasks to satisfy the curiosity to learn about social issues. The conclusion of the participants of all five focus groups is that their textbook Nature and Society helps them learn to reproduce information more easily, but it is not interesting and provocative enough, does not promote knowledge or nor apply it to life situations. Participants in the research said that a textbook from which they could learn more about social content should contain a variety of information, but that it has to be presented and shaped so as to motivate them more (especially to include examples from life) and link their social experiences. The results represent a valid basis for further research which would examine the practical possibilities of a methodical transfor­mation of the contents from the corpus of social sciences in the school textbook. In doing so, the most important task should be the creation of a textbook as a medium that integrates contents, sources, and student activities in the process of independent learning about the social world surrounding the students.

Final Reports of Papal Diplomats as a Cultural Message: The Case of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

This paper focuses on the cultural and political importance of papal nuncios’ final reports ( relazioni finali ) as one of the basic sources of knowledge about the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth in the Roman Curia. The final report was a document, in essence a summary, which a diplomat was required to complete at the end of his mission (or immediately after). During the creation of the office of permanent nuncio to the major European courts, the preparation and delivery of the final report often took place orally. Gradually, the relazione evolved into a written version. Throughout the sixteenth century, when knowledge about Poland-Lithuania in Rome was rather poor, the relazioni finali consisted of colourful descriptions of the geography, the history, and the social and political relations of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. During the seventeenth century, this document became more political in character. It related directly to the activities of the papal diplomats, rituals and ceremonials, and any particular problems regarding the missions, rather than extensive descriptions of relatively banal curiosities. Throughout the seventeenth century in particular, when a permanent papal diplomatic presence had just been established in Poland-Lithuania, the final reports were an important contribution to future missions. Newly-appointed nuncios therefore willingly used the extremely important information contained therein. The practice of writing relazioni finali made it easier for the Holy See to consolidate its diplomatic influence and presence in Central and Eastern Europe in the early modern period. It also fostered papal interest in the social and political features of the enormous ‘noble’ republic.

Obrona kultu obrazów w Trzech mowach apologetycznych przeciwko tym, którzy odrzucają święte obrazy św. Jana Damasceńskiego

St John of Damascus was one of the first theologians who shaped thetheology of images. His theology was born in the difficult historical circumstancesof the first iconoclasm. This is why it was not always up to thetask. But it was John who first defined the image as the object of worshipand gave a number of convincing arguments for worshiping them. The basicsource of knowledge about the theology of the icon of John of Damascus ishis Three Apologetic Treatises against those Decrying the Holy Images. Onthis basis, I presented the definitions of the cult of images and the varioustypes of worship, then the arguments used by St. John of Damascus inorder to validate the worship of images in the context of the Old Testamentprohibition on the creation of images and the Christian worship of thesaints. Finally, I presented John’s theology as an expression of the Church’sindependence from the emperor’s power and his attitude to ecclesiasticaltradition, especially to the opinions of the Fathers of the Church.

O lugar do testemunho na estrutura do conhecimento e da justificação

O objetivo central neste artigo é o de explicar o que é testemunho e como ele produz conhecimento e justificação. Conforme essa concepção, o testemunho é uma importante e habitual fonte de conhecimento e de justificação, bem como um conceito relevante em epistemologia social, comunicação e psicologia da aquisição de crença. Apesar de o testemunho, nessa concepção, não ser considerado uma fonte básica de conhecimento e justificação, é alegado que ele é uma fonte de conhecimento básico pois crenças básicas não precisariam derivar de uma fonte básica. Assim, novas crenças podem ser geradas a partir do testemunho, mas novo conhecimento não pode ser produzido a não ser a partir de conhecimento anterior. Apesar disso, a posição defendida neste artigo considera que, mesmo que a justificação com base no testemunho seja, em última instância, dependente de outras fontes de justificação, o testemunho constitui uma fonte essencial tanto de conhecimento como de justificação.