Basic Sounds Research Articles

Comparing and Contrasting First and Second Language Acquisition

The ways in which an individual characteristically acquires, retains, and retrieves information in secondary language collectively term the individual’s learning ability. This paper will mainly treat the difference between a child and an adult language acquisition.Determining the difference between a child and an adult foreign language acquisition best depends on a number of variables: the learner’s age, aptitude, and motivation; the amount of time available for instruction; and the difference between the native and the foreign language. For young children, starting early can lead to mastery of a foreign language — with no long-term detriment to their grasp of English. Older students and adults, on the other hand, need a judicious mixture of practice and communication. We are looking at child first language acquisition and adult second language acquisition because they both seem most relevant to our lives right now – as college students who have most definitely mastered our first language at a young age, and are mostly likely attempting to master our second as adults. On the surface, one would look at child first language acquisition and adult second language acquisition and see similarities. The theory of Universal Grammar as developed in the tradition of generative grammar by Noam Chomsky was adopted. In each case, the learner first learns how to make basic sounds, then words, phrases and sentences; and as this learning continues the sentences become more and more complex. However, when one looks at the outcomes of these two types of acquisition, the differences are dramatic. The child's ability to communicate in the target language far surpasses that of the adult. In this paper differences in these two processes that most always produce such different outcomes will be explored. DOI: 10.5901/mjss.2013.v4n10p56

Exploring auditory aging can exclusively explain Japanese adults’ age-related decrease in training effects of American English /r/-/l/

Age-related decrease in training effect was shown by training of American English /r/-/l/ contrasts on Japanese speakers. This study examined whether the decrease can be explained exclusively by auditory aging, or other, compensatory cognitive processing should be taken into account. Japanese speakers aged 60’s participated the experiment. Hearing threshold and spoken word perception test of participants’ first language were used to estimate their auditory aging. The word perception test was composed of low-familiar words, high-familiar words, and mono syllables. The audiograms showed low threshold at high frequencies. The result of the perception test showed that low intelligibility for phonemes with high frequency or short duration, and confusion between contracted sounds and basic sounds. These were particular for low-familiar words and mono syllables. These results suggest that participants had auditory aging emerging as high frequency loss and time-frequency-resolution degradation. Nonetheless, the acoustic features to distinguish /r/ and /l/ have long duration, low frequencies and wide frequency distance which are supposed to be unaffected by these auditory aging. The effect of word familiarity suggested compensatory cognitive processing involved. These suggest that age-related decrease cannot be explained exclusively by auditory aging, compensatory cognitive processing should be taken into account.

EEG sensorimotor correlates of translating sounds into actions

Understanding the actions of others is a necessary foundational cornerstone for effective and affective social interactions. Such understanding may result from a mapping of observed actions as well as heard sounds onto one's own motor representations of those events. To examine the electrophysiological basis of action-related sounds, EEG data were collected in two studies from adults who were exposed to auditory events in one of three categories: action (either hand- or mouth-based sounds), non-action (environmental sounds), and control sounds (scrambled versions of action sounds). In both studies, triplets of sounds of the same category were typically presented, although occasionally, to ensure an attentive state, trials containing a sound from a different category were presented within the triplet and participants were asked to respond to this oddball event either covertly in one study or overtly in another. Additionally, participants in both studies were asked to mimic hand- and mouth-based motor actions associated with the sounds (motor task). Action sounds elicited larger EEG mu rhythm (8–13 Hz) suppression, relative to control sounds, primarily over left hemisphere, while non-action sounds showed larger mu suppression primarily over right hemisphere. Furthermore, hand-based sounds elicited greater mu suppression over the hand area in sensorimotor cortex compared to mouth-based sounds. These patterns of mu suppression across cortical regions to different categories of sounds and to effector-specific sounds suggest differential engagement of a mirroring system in the human brain when processing sounds.

The origins of duality of patterning in artificial whistled languages.

In human speech, a finite set of basic sounds is combined into a (potentially) unlimited set of well-formed morphemes. Hockett (1960) placed this phenomenon under the term 'duality of patterning' and included it as one of the basic design features of human language. Of the thirteen basic design features Hockett proposed, duality of patterning is the least studied and it is still unclear how it evolved in language. Recent work shedding light on this is summarized in this paper and experimental data is presented. This data shows that combinatorial structure can emerge in an artificial whistled language through cultural transmission as an adaptation to human cognitive biases and learning. In this work the method of experimental iterated learning (Kirby et al. 2008) is used, in which a participant is trained on the reproductions of the utterances the previous participant learned. Participants learn and recall a system of sounds that are produced with a slide whistle. Transmission from participant to participant causes the whistle systems to change and become more learnable and more structured. These findings follow from qualitative observations, quantitative measures and a follow-up experiment that tests how well participants can learn the emerged whistled languages by generalizing from a few examples.

The Timbre of Thai Classical Singing

This article explores the timbre of Thai classical singing with an emphasis on uan, a wordless vocalization based upon specific vowels and consonants, using spectrographic images. Spectrographs are computer images that visualize the fundamental, overtones, and noise-like sounds of a performance. Uan can be reduced to five basic sounds and are analyzed individually and then placed within a musical context. Performances from different generations and musical lineages are contrasted and compared in relation to timbre. I argue it is the relative timbral consistency of the five basic uan sounds, connecting musical generations and lineages, combined with the unique characteristics of each performance that defines the distinct sound of Thai classical singing.

Differential Contributions of Bilateral Ventral Anterior Temporal Lobe and Left Anterior Superior Temporal Gyrus to Semantic Processes

Studies of semantic dementia and repetitive TMS have suggested that the bilateral anterior temporal lobes (ATLs) underpin a modality-invariant representational hub within the semantic system. However, it is not clear whether all ATL subregions contribute in the same way. We utilized distortion-corrected fMRI to investigate the pattern of activation in the left and right ATL when participants performed a semantic decision task on auditory words, environmental sounds, or pictures. This showed that the ATL is not functionally homogeneous but is more graded. Both left and right ventral ATL (vATL) responded to all modalities in keeping with the notion that this region underpins multimodality semantic processing. In addition, there were graded differences across the hemispheres. Semantic processing of both picture and environmental sound stimuli was associated with equivalent bilateral vATL activation, whereas auditory words generated greater activation in left than right vATL. This graded specialization for auditory stimuli would appear to reflect the input from the left superior ATL, which responded solely to semantic decisions on the basis of spoken words and environmental sounds, suggesting that this region is specialized to auditory stimuli. A final noteworthy result was that these regions were activated for domain level decisions to singly presented stimuli, which appears to be incompatible with the hypotheses that the ATL is dedicated (a) to the representation of specific entities or (b) for combinatorial semantic processes.

Hearing Without Listening: Functional Connectivity Reveals the Engagement of Multiple Nonauditory Networks During Basic Sound Processing

The present functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study presents data challenging the traditional view that sound is processed almost exclusively in the classical auditory pathway unless imbued with behavioral significance. In a first experiment, subjects were presented with broadband noise in on/off fashion as they performed an unrelated visual task. A conventional analysis assuming predictable sound-evoked responses demonstrated a typical activation pattern that was confined to classical auditory centers. In contrast, spatial independent component analysis (sICA) disclosed multiple networks of acoustically responsive brain centers. One network comprised classical auditory centers, but four others included nominally "nonauditory" areas: cingulo-insular cortex, mediotemporal limbic lobe, basal ganglia, and posterior orbitofrontal cortex, respectively. Functional connectivity analyses confirmed the sICA results by demonstrating coordinated activity between the involved brain structures. In a second experiment, fMRI data obtained from unstimulated (i.e., resting) subjects revealed largely similar networks. Together, these two experiments suggest the existence of a coordinated system of multiple acoustically responsive intrinsic brain networks, comprising classical auditory centers but also other brain areas. Our results suggest that nonauditory centers play a role in sound processing at a very basic level, even when the sound is not intertwined with behaviors requiring the well-known functionality of these regions.

Just Say Yes to New Drugs

Predatory snails, glowing bacteria, and bad-smelling mosquitoes probably don't make you think medical breakthroughs! The list is from the realm of research, which has been compared to shooting an arrow into the sky and then painting a target where it lands. It's easy to lampoon research. In a culture of ultra-this and cutting-edge-that, basic sounds cheap. Of course, in the case of research basic means fundamental. Most science teachers are deeply curious about the natural world and can appreciate scientists driven to explore seemingly obscure corners of life. The general public, however, doesn't necessarily appreciate the value of curiosity-driven research that has a high chance of failure. If forced to make a choice on how tax dollars are to be spent, most people would go for applied research. So how is it that the lion's share of research supported by the U.S. Government's National Institutes of Health (NIH) is research? The short answer is that research is the best compass for applied research. The mission of the NIH is to gain fundamental knowledge about living systems and to apply that knowledge to improving health. At the heart of this mission is the principal of investigator-initiated research, which is bureaucratic code for let smart, driven, curious people follow their nose. Don't try and tell them what they should be researching. The NIH is the envy of the global research community with a budget of about $30 billion a year. No other nation on earth comes close to this level of public support for biomedical …

L’Outil diagnostique de l’action en partenariat : fondements, élaboration et validation

Intervening on social determinants of health requires that public health stakeholders enter into intersectoral partnerships. The lack of valid tools to evaluate the quality of partnerships is a significant constraint to formulating convincing arguments for this kind of action. In light of this shortcoming, the tool described in this article evaluates processes of collective action based on key aspects of its effectiveness. The tool is based on a theoretical model that followed from case studies identifying the conditions associated with quality of partnerships. The tool was developed by operationalizing these conditions into a series of statements, and pretested using the cognitive interviewing method. Construct validity and ecological validity were verified. The tool includes 18 items, with 3 answer choices provided for each item. It is sensitive to variations in judgement. It allows for good convergence among respondents from participating organizations within a partnership; it can also distinguish between partnerships that have difficulty meeting certain conditions and those that do not. The tool is suitable for self-evaluation of partnerships engaged in common projects that involve more than information exchange. The tool's validity resides in its validation procedure and in the basic soundness of its theoretical model, which is supported by a number of literature reviews on how partnerships function and their results.

L’Outil diagnostique de l’action en partenariat: fondements, élaboration et validation

OBJECTIVES Intervening on social determinants of health requires that public health stakeholders enter into intersectoral partnerships. The lack of valid tools to evaluate the quality of partnerships is a significant constraint to formulating convincing arguments for this kind of action. In light of this shortcoming, the tool described in this article evaluates processes of collective action based on key aspects of its effectiveness. METHOD The tool is based on a theoretical model that followed from case studies identifying the conditions associated with quality of partnerships. The tool was developed by operationalizing these conditions into a series of statements, and pretested using the cognitive interviewing method. Construct validity and ecological validity were verified. RESULTS The tool includes 18 items, with 3 answer choices provided for each item. It is sensitive to variations in judgement. It allows for good convergence among respondents from participating organizations within a partnership; it can also distinguish between partnerships that have difficulty meeting certain conditions and those that do not. The tool is suitable for self-evaluation of partnerships engaged in common projects that involve more than information exchange. DISCUSSION The tool's validity resides in its validation procedure and in the basic soundness of its theoretical model, which is supported by a number of literature reviews on how partnerships function and their results.

Assistive Courseware for Hearing Impaired Learners in Malaysia

This paper reports a research on Hearing Impaired (HI) learners in Malaysia which focuses on beginner level. This research has been carried out with intention to solve problem faced by parents of HI children in teaching their children to know the six basic sounds which is known as Ling-6 Sound. The HI learners were assisted by speciallydeveloped electronic-learning application or known as Assistive Courseware (AC) in their teaching and learning process. The AC utilizes their mother tongue language. The objectives of the study include 1) To identify the characteristic of AC for HI learners, 2) To design the storyboard of AC for HI learners, and 3) To design the interface of AC for HI learners. This study adapts the Iterative Triangulation Methodology, and is integrated with the IntView Methodology. The storyboard of the prototype is outlined next. The findings of this paper highlight the prototype of the AC labelled with certain characteristics that has been identified and the result is based on interview with parents. The final part concludes this paper.

Language evolution: The human speaking machine

Speech comes so easily to adult humans that it's easy to forget the sheer amount of muscular coordination needed to produce even the most basic sounds

SRoL - Web-based Resources for Languages and Language Technology e-Learning

The SRoL Web-based spoken language repository and tool collection includes thousands of voice recordings grouped on sections like "Basic sounds of the Romanian language", "Emotional voices", "Specific language processes", "Pathological voices", "Comparison of natural and synthetic speech", "Gnathophonics and gnathosonics". The recordings are annotated and documented according to proprietary methodology and protocols. Moreover, we included on the site extended documentation on the Romanian language, on speech technology, and on tools, produced by the SRoL team, for voice analysis. The resources are a part of the CLARIN European Network for Language Resources. The resources and tools are useful in virtual learning for phonetics of the Romanian language, speech technology, and medical subjects related to voice. We report on several applications in language learning and voice technology classes. Here, we emphasize the utilization of the SRoL resources in education for medicine and speech rehabilitation.

Motor Timing and Precursor Literacy Skills in Very Young Children

It is generally agreed that efficiency in processing basic speech sounds is a strong indicator of literacy outcomes. However, there is some debate about the extent to which this capacity is encapsulated within the language system. We report results based on pretest data obtained in an early music training study investigating the relationship between a motor-rhythmic measure of ability (synchronous tapping) and the purported purely linguistically based processing measures, Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN) and Phonological Awareness (PA). Results suggest that RAN ability relies to some extent on nonlinguistic temporal processing skills.

Dietary advice: from folklore to present beliefs.

Many countries have folklore beliefs about the use of foodstuffs to remedy ill health and to promote long life. Many of the beliefs and practices of the ancients and, more recently, "mothers's views of health" have a basic soundness and are in harmony with present-day advice on the attainment of a prudent diet and life-style.

Research Conservatism is Responsible for Myths in Tourism Research

Tourism, as a field of study, has witnessed phenomenal growth in the past 15 years. This growth has been matched by an equally impressive expansion in both the number of journals and authors. It is estimated conservatively that at least 5,000 people and likely many thousands more have contributed to our academic literature in this decade alone. The growth presents both opportunities and challenges for our field of study. On the one hand, tourism is in the midst of a dynamic and creative expansion phase. More people from more countries have more opportunities than ever before to explore ideas and to find a medium to publish those ideas. It is an exciting time to be a tourism scholar. But on the other hand, some colleagues are questioning whether sufficient talent exists to satisfy the opportunity. They wonder if supply has exceeded demand. Good papers will still be published, but they wonder if there are there enough ‘good’ papers to go around. The short answer is yes, for the refereeing process eliminates unpublishable work. But, the longer answer is possibly not, for it appears that a larger number of poor or unacceptable manuscripts are being submitted to journals each year that simply should not be in the system. One senses growing evidence of conservatism, a lack of methodological innovation and an over reliance on clicking the mouse on software packages with a concomitant failure to appreciate the meaning of the results, in much of the research that does not meet publication standards. In addition, one is surprised at the lack of intellectual curiosity evidenced by some PhD students. Admittedly, these comments are based purely on personal observation and informal discussions with colleagues from other universities. But, the trend seems to be accelerating. Research conservatism is an underlying theme behind many of the myths identified by Josef Mazanec in the ‘Probe’. In particular, the advancement of some tourism research is being constrained by the perceived need to largely replicate work conducted by others, but to proclaim it as an advancement. In many instances, such advancements may involve nothing more than repeating the same study in a different locale, while in others, it may involve adding one or two variables to an existing framework. True, it may be admirable to test the universality of some ideas, but how many repetitions of the same study are needed to confirm its basic soundness, perhaps with minor local variations? It is also somewhat disappointing to see so many people feel obligated to use models and test hypotheses. Don’t misunderstand! Models and hypotheses are useful when appropriate for the project. But they can also limit arbitrarily the scope of the project and the depth of intellectual enquiry involved. Some social science research has to be model- and hypothesis-based, but they are not suitable in all cases. Good research, though, is always about good ideas. The best insights can often be gained by posing a question and looking for answers, rather than by imposing a rigid model, quantitative questionnaire or testing binary reject/do not reject hypotheses. Two other issues arise. First, the vast majority of ‘models’ encountered are not models at all. They are primarily methodological frameworks that guide the research process. As such they tend to reflect the linear thinking process behind the study, rather than trying to simplify and explain reality. Likewise, hypotheses work best in limited studies where a no/not no answer is desired, where a sufficient body of knowledge exists to test a proposition. But they do not work in open-ended studies that seek to explore an issue. Asking questions is a much more effective way to frame this type of research. It is no surprise that much of the early work done in tourism is so relevant, for it was all about ideas. Butler’s(1980) lifecycle, Cohen’s (1972, 1979) typologies, Leiper’s (1990) ideas of attractions systems and many other key papers were based on a deductive reasoning approach where people saw reality and tried to explain it. Some people complain that these studies lack rigour, but what they really mean is that they lack numbers. The ideas themselves were developed in a rigorous manner. The same people who subscribe to quantitative methods often fail to appreciate that a survey used is only as good as the questions asked. If the variable is not included, it cannot be measured, no matter how important it may be. The first question that comes to mind

Reply

Reply Kathleen Ragan (bio) The last hundred years of scholarship have given a worldwide, cross-cultural context to the study of the folk narrative and a pervasive recognition that "When something has the ability to attract and repel one so forcefully, one may assume that it deals with fundamentals" (Lüthi 22). Therefore, folktale and fairy-tale scholars are perfectly poised to enter and help shape the emerging field of literary Darwinism, which connects evolutionary theory and literature. In Gottschall's interesting response to my article, he acknowledges the basic soundness of my research. This agreement presents us with the opportunity to broaden the topic of this reply and to explore an evolutionary approach to the study of the folk narrative. It is important to first note that Gottschall raises questions on three points: 1. That my sample is not large enough "to be considered representative of world folk traditions." ("Sampling") 2. That "Ragan's two-thirds threshold is a needless complication." ("Elimination of Moderating Effects") 3. That "Ragan suggests that earlier scholars, me included, have been blind to the issue of possible gender distortion in their studies." ("Framing") Point number one would be a serious concern if I had claimed that my results are representative of world folk traditions. Although a logical extension of my work is to see if the results are representative of world folk traditions, my current article deals with a more tightly defined issue: bias in a data set of random tales from a large academic library. Point number two deals with a choice I made in the analysis of my data. Cavalli-Sforza recommends that for complex cultural issues, one should choose a level for analysis that makes differences observable (see Cavalli-Sforza and Feldman). I specifically chose the two-thirds threshold for simplicity and clarity. After one-half, the next simplest fraction is one-third. Just as a 51 percent majority is needed to pass a law but a two-thirds majority is needed to override a veto, the two-thirds threshold creates a definitive example of "Female" or "Male" dominance in the tale. Gottschall would prefer an analysis that eliminates the defining threshold. That analysis might give interesting results, too, but it is a different study. Regarding point number three, there seems to be a regrettable misunderstanding. In my article I wrote that to his credit, Gottschall himself identified the problem that a biased data set would lead to. Gottschall has made daring [End Page 443] forays into the emerging field of literary Darwinism and has certainly not been blind to possible gender bias. However, my research established that data sets that do not effectively control for gender are very likely to be biased. A biased data set compromises the research done with that data set regardless of the intentions of the researcher. The time is ripe for folktale and fairy-tale experts to explore the use of sociobiological and evolutionary concepts. However, the fundamental question of how scientific style analysis will be applied is as yet undetermined and very important. In the case of literature, scientific style analysis will not be applied to the physical world by a social being; rather, it will be applied to the social world by a social being. This raises the important question: How should scientific style investigation be applied to the study of the folk narrative, and with what caveats? In the following exploration of this question, theoretical points will be illustrated using examples from my article and from Gottschall's response. The scientific style analysis applied to culture by sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists is highly reductionistic. Reductionism has two basic and limiting assumptions that must be well understood and constantly kept in mind. The first assumption is that dividing an entity into smaller units will enable a better understanding of the larger entity. Sociobiology uses the "selfish" gene, a self-replicating biological unit, and the meme, a theoretical, self-replicating, cultural unit (see Dawkins). However, difficulties with the idea of a "selfish" meme self-replicating can immediately be discerned. Calling a tale a selfish meme is simply personification. A fairy tale is no more selfish than it is lonely or married. Secondly, a tale...

Formation of language-specific characteristics of speech sounds in early ontogeny

Heterochronic formation of basic and language-specific speech sounds in the first year of life in infants from different ethnic groups (Chechens, Russians, and Mongols) has been studied. Spectral analysis of the frequency, amplitude, and formant characteristics of speech sounds has shown a universal pattern of organization of the basic sound repertoire and “language-specific” sounds in the process of babbling and prattle of infants of different ethnic groups. Possible mechanisms of the formation of specific speech sounds in early ontogeny are discussed.

Good Ethics Can Sometimes Mean Better Science: Research Ethics and the Milgram Experiments

All agree that if the Milgram experiments were proposed today they would never receive approval from a research ethics board. However, the results of the Milgram experiments are widely cited across a broad range of academic literature from psychology to moral philosophy. While interpretations of the experiments vary, few commentators, especially philosophers, have expressed doubts about the basic soundness of the results. What I argue in this paper is that this general approach to the experiments might be in error. I will show that the ethical problems that would prevent the experiments from being approved today actually have an effect on the results such that the experiments might show less than many currently suppose. Making this case demonstrates two conclusions. The first is that there are good reasons to think that the conclusions of many of Milgram's commentators might be too strong. The second conclusion is a more general one. The ethics procedures commonly used by North American research ethics boards serve not only to protect human participants in research but also can sometimes help secure, to an extent, the integrity of results. In other words, good ethics can sometimes mean better science.

Perspectives on dyslexia

Dyslexia, or a reading disability, occurs when an individual has significant difficulty with speed and accuracy of word decoding. Comprehension of text and spelling are also affected. The diagnosis of dyslexia involves the use of reading tests, but the continuum of reading performance means that any cutoff point is arbitrary. The IQ score does not play a role in the diagnosis of dyslexia. The cognitive difficulties of dyslexics include problems with speech perception, recognizing and manipulating the basic sounds in a language, language memory, and learning the sounds of letters. Dyslexia is a neurological condition with a genetic basis. There are abnormalities in the brains of dyslexic individuals. There are also differences in the electrophysiological and structural characteristics of the brains of dyslexics. Physicians play a particularly important role in recognizing children who are at risk for dyslexia and helping their parents obtain the proper assessment.