Ecological Basis Research Articles

Paraphyly changes understanding of timing and tempo of diversification in subtribe Hakeinae (Proteaceae), a giant Australian plant radiation.

Subtribe Hakeinae (526 spp.) represents a large Australian plant radiation central to our understanding of that flora's evolution and ecology. It contains Grevillea-the third largest plant genus in Australia and a group inferred to have among the highest diversification rates in the angiosperms. However, we lack a robust phylogenetic framework for understanding subtribe Hakeinae and recognize that Grevillea lacks an unambiguous synapomorphy supporting its monophyly. We used four plastid and one nuclear DNA region from a taxonomically even sampling of a third of the species to infer a time-calibrated phylogeny of Hakeinae and absolute diversification rates of major clades. We developed the R package addTaxa to add unsampled taxa to the tree for diversification rate inference. Grevillea is paraphyletic with respect to Hakea and Finschia. Under most parameter combinations, Hakea contains the major clade with the highest diversification rate in Hakeinae, rather than Grevillea. The crown age of the Grevillea+Hakea+Finschia crown group is about double that of prior estimates. We demonstrate that the paraphyly of Grevillea considerably enlarges the number of Australian descendants from its most recent common ancestor but has also misled investigators who considered a single operational taxonomic unit as adequate to represent the genus for inferences of diversification rate and timing. Our time-calibrated phylogeny can form the basis of future evolutionary, comparative ecology, and biogeography studies involving this large Australian plant radiation, as well as nomenclatural changes.

ЭКОЛОГО-ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКИЕ ОСНОВЫ ОРГАНИЗАЦИИ ЛЕСНОГО ХОЗЯЙСТВА В ВОСТОЧНЫХ РАЙОНАХ ЕВРОПЕЙСКОГО СЕВЕРА РОССИИ В УСЛОВИЯХ ИЗМЕНЕНИЯ КЛИМАТА

ЭКОЛОГО-ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКИЕ ОСНОВЫ ОРГАНИЗАЦИИ ЛЕСНОГО ХОЗЯЙСТВА В ВОСТОЧНЫХ РАЙОНАХ ЕВРОПЕЙСКОГО СЕВЕРА РОССИИ В УСЛОВИЯХ ИЗМЕНЕНИЯ КЛИМАТА

Maintaining the high diversity of pine and oak species in Mexican temperate forests: a new management approach combining functional zoning and ecosystem adaptability

Mexican temperate forests, at the southernmost end of the distribution range of this ecosystem, are the world’s centre of diversity of pine and oak, with 55 and 161 species, respectively. Such forests are threatened by land-use change, unsustainable forest management practices, and climate change; these threats reduce their diversity, alter the distribution ranges of species, modify disturbance regimes, and reduce ecosystem adaptability. This paper briefly reviews (i) the ecology of the Mexican temperate forests, (ii) the ecological basis for the unique diversity of pine and oak species, (iii) the main disturbances as well as the main drivers of global changes affecting these forests, in particular climate change, and (iv) the social, economic, and cultural factors to be considered in proposing a new forest management approach. It proposes a new conceptual framework to manage Mexican temperate forests that are in line with (i) their natural dynamics, (ii) the rapidly changing and uncertain global environmental, social, and economic conditions, and (iii) the complex adaptive system approach. This new forest management combines functional zoning, multispecies plantations, and sylvicultural interventions to increase the adaptive capacity of forests as a way to balance the increasing need for timber products with the need for other ecosystem services facing rapidly changing and uncertain future environmental, social, and economic conditions.

Omura's whales (Balaenoptera omurai) off northwest Madagascar: ecology, behaviour and conservation needs.

The Omura’s whale (Balaenoptera omurai) was described as a new species in 2003 and then soon after as an ancient lineage basal to a Bryde’s/sei whale clade. Currently known only from whaling and stranding specimens primarily from the western Pacific and eastern Indian Oceans, there exist no confirmed field observations or ecological/behavioural data. Here we present, to our knowledge, the first genetically confirmed documentation of living Omura’s whales including descriptions of basic ecology and behaviour from northwestern Madagascar. Species identification was confirmed through molecular phylogenetic analyses of biopsies collected from 18 adult animals. All individuals shared a single haplotype in a 402 bp sequence of mtDNA control region, suggesting low diversity and a potentially small population. Sightings of 44 groups indicated preference for shallow-water shelf habitat with sea surface temperature between 27.4°C and 30.2°C. Frequent observations were made of lunge feeding, possibly on zooplankton. Observations of four mothers with young calves, and recordings of a song-like vocalization probably indicate reproductive behaviour. Social organization consisted of loose aggregations of predominantly unassociated single individuals spatially and temporally clustered. Photographic recapture of a female re-sighted the following year with a young calf suggests site fidelity or a resident population. Our results demonstrate that the species is a tropical whale without segregation of feeding and breeding habitat, and is probably non-migratory; our data extend the range of this poorly studied whale into the western Indian Ocean. Exclusive range restriction to tropical waters is rare among baleen whale species, except for the various forms of Bryde’s whales and Omura’s whales. Thus, the discovery of a tractable population of Omura’s whales in the tropics presents an opportunity for understanding the ecological factors driving potential convergence of life-history patterns with the distantly related Bryde’s whales.

Quilombolas: a produção de mel na apicultura familiar do Vale do Ribeira, São Paulo

Family beekeeping (small-scale beekeeping) is an essential activity for economic and ecological farming systems (with its contribution to pollination), which aims to bring social inclusion, fixed income, and sustainable ecological bases. This study aimed to identify the current profile of honey production in five quilombolas communities in the Sao Paulo Ribeira Valley (Cangume, Piloes, Piririca, Porto Velho, and Ribeirao Grande/Terra Seca), with reference to the social and environmental aspects as well as beekeeping practices. The results suggest that the social aspects of family beekeeping can be considered a second income. In these communities, however, sanitation problems, including lack of potable water resources and mining contamination, differ between communities. With the study of georeferencing, we were able to establish local environmental conditions, which served as the basis for the floristic inventory of 85 plant species distributed in 32 botanical families. The analyses of air temperature and relative humidity and honey humidity indicated that the honey was influenced by climatic conditions and the processes adopted, since the measures of pH and EC suggest a correlation with the botanical origin of honeys. Professional training in maroon communities allowed an awareness of the quality and composition of honey.

Preface to “Invasive Species” Topical Collection

making valuable contributions to basic ecology and conservation biology. Invasion ecology is a rather young field, and much effort is still needed to develop generalized principles and to transform the discipline into a predictive science. The majority of studies on invasive species have focused on terrestrial habitats. However, marine and coastal systems worldwide are being invaded at extraordinary rates owing to shipping, opening and construction of seaways and canals, fisheries, aquarium trade, habitat modification, and climate change (Williams et al. 2013). In particular, shipping vectors such as ballast water and hull fouling, which are responsible for 65–70 % of aquatic invasions (Ricciardi 2006; Molnar et al. 2008), are capable of translocating almost entire aquatic communities during a single introduction event (Sylvester et al. 2011; Briski et al. 2012) and have no equivalent in the terrestrial environment. Therefore, work addressing key transport vectors in aquatic systems such as those that quantify the number of transported species and their abundances (i.e., propagule and colonization pressures), those that examine community dynamics of entrained assemblages during the transport process, and those that investigate genetic diversity and phenotypic plasticity of introduced species in relation to vector type is urgently needed. Further, studies identifying predictors of invasion success, forecasting impact of invasive species on invaded communities, and testing of hypotheses, such as the importance of hybridization, invasion meltdown, and enemy release, are essential for understanding mechanisms underlying invasion success in marine and coastal environments as well as abilities of invasive species to adapt rapidly during the invasion process. This ‘Topical Collection’ addresses many tenets of invasion ecology and sheds new light on this important part of marine biology. It provides a venue for the exchange of information on various aspects about aquatic invasion ecology and an opportunity Marine Biology introduces a new feature called ‘Topical Collections’, which promotes current and emergent areas of research. The electronic ‘Topical Collections’ are continuations of the former printed ‘Special Issues’, with an advantage of being publicly available with the very first article accepted. In addition to the online publication in the ‘Topical Collection’, all articles are published electronically and in print in regular volumes. The first Marine Biology ‘Topical Collection’ focuses on “Invasive Species”. Human population growth and increased global trade have significantly expanded our collective ecological ‘footprint’, with the introduction of nonindigenous species, particularly the invasive ones, being recognized as one of the dominant environmental stressors (Sala et al. 2000). Invasive species may act as predators, parasites, pathogens, or competitors of native species; their introductions and spread can result in dramatic changes in recipient ecosystems, including significant negative impact on local biodiversity as well as ecosystem functions and services to human society (Simberloff et al. 2013). The ability to predict and/or identify future invaders, the responsible transport vectors and pathways (i.e., transport means and routes), and potential impact would allow managers and policy makers to develop strategies to prevent new invasions and manage existing ones, while also

Ecological Basis of Rainforest Management

Ecological Basis of Rainforest Management

Basic Biology, Good Field Notes, and Synthesizing across Your Career

Ichthyology and herpetology remain in need of well-done studies in basic biology and ecology, life history, or natural history for many species. Even for well-studied areas in the United States, the percentage of species for which basic information is lacking or for which better information is needed, based on state or regional faunal books, ranged from about 10 to 35% for fish species, and about 5 to 31% for herps. For Mexico the need was even greater, with the basic biology of approximately 45% of the fish fauna poorly known. Part of the need for better information stems from perceptions by some that basic studies are less desirable than works grounded in theory or modeling. But basic biological information is the foundation for and critical to virtually all syntheses or meta-analyses. Thus, publication of good basic biology in appropriate journals is extremely valuable to one's discipline, and many peer-reviewed journals like Copeia remain amenable to publishing such information. In recent years, gradu...

Hospital's Hidden Environmental Hazards: Probing the Microbiome

President Barack Obama’s proposed $1.2 billion plan to fight antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) captured headlines (see, e.g., http://io.aibs.org/carpot). Meanwhile, researchers have been tackling dangerous superbugs with little fanfare. Among the newest of these efforts is the Hospital Microbiome Project (HMP), funded by the Sloan Foundation. The project aims to make hospitals safer by understanding the basic ecology of microbial communities that live in healthcare settings. “If we don’t understand how the environment works, we cannot manipulate it to make it better,” says Jack Gilbert, director of the HMP and an environmental microbiologist at Argonne National Laboratory, in Illinois. When the University of Chicago planned to build a new hospital in February 2013, Gilbert and other experts installed reliable and affordable sensors to track environmental data, including humidity, temperature, lighting, and the number of times that people enter and exit a patient’s room. They also collected microbial samples from floors, beds, air vents, sinks, computers, phones, and nurse’s stations on two floors before and after patients were admitted. The microbial data are still being analyzed and will be published early in 2016. However, preliminary results show that before the hospital opened, few human-related microbes were detected. “As soon as it opened, the whole building was flooded with human bacteria,” says Gilbert. Within 24 hours, microbial communities significantly increased in diversity and changed to closely resemble the microbiome of the patient occupying a room. Also, patients taking antibiotics were colonized more by room microbes than were patients not taking antibiotics. The HMP’s first report in PLOS ONE, published in March, verified that standard monitors reliably collect data to predict the growth of microbial communities. “We plan to routinely monitor the environment and rapidly change it to control microbial populations to protect patients,” says Gilbert. Ultimately, the HMP will help patients to heal and recover by designing better hospital environments. The much older Prevention Epicenters Program, started in 1997, coordinates hospital-based studies aimed at thwarting healthcare-acquired infections caused by ARB. Funded by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the program “aligns public health and academic experts to work together to find innovative strategies to protect patients,” says the CDC’s John Jernigan, director of the program. The CDC estimates that these infections kill 75,000 patients each year. A leading long-term project discovered a pragmatic and inexpensive remedy: bathing susceptible patients with the antiseptic chlorhexidine. In a study of 43 hospitals and 74,000 patients in intensive care units (ICUs), daily chlorhexidine baths reduced by 63 percent bloodstream infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). The average cost per patient ran about $40, as published in the New England Journal of Medicine in June 2013. A February 2013 article in the same journal found that daily chlorhexidine bathing of 7727 ICU and bone marrow transplant patients also cut by a third bloodstream infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms. Chlorhexidine baths “give a big bang for a buck,” says Robert Weinstein, who leads Prevention Epicenter trials at Rush University, in Chicago, one of five national sites. MRSA and other ARB killed by chlorhexidine “are very serious problems in hospitals nationally,” says Weinstein. Chlorhexidine has been available for 50 years. New formulations, such as chlorhexidine-impregnated washcloths, make it easier to use. Researchers monitor for bacterial resistance, and “there’s no evidence of any emerging in our studies,” says Weinstein. The latest analysis found that less than 1 percent of MRSA isolates carry chlorhexidine-resistant genes (see the November 2012 issue of Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy). About half of ICUs now bathe patients with chlorhexidine as a routine practice. “It would be great if we could roll out a chlorhexidine campaign to convince more hospital administrators that it’s the right thing to do,” says Victoria Fraser, head of Preventive Epicenter trials at Washington University, in St. Louis. With the current emphasis on cost containment, administrators “need to know about the cost savings and benefits chlorhexidine baths bring for many different types of patients,” Fraser says. In order to improve care in realworld settings, Prevention Epicenter researchers first conduct proof-of-principle trials to identify procedures that lower infection rates. Then, the process is replicated in diverse hospital settings and geographic locations. “This is tougher to do than animal research,” says Fraser. She adds that funds from Obama’s ARB initiative would “help tremendously to translate patient-oriented research. We need more scientists, doctors, and nurses working in this area,” as well as new antibiotics, rapid detection systems, and therapeutics. Other Prevention Epicenter sites are at Duke University, Harvard Pilgrim Health Care, and the University of Pennsylvania. Ongoing projects include controlling infections among patients who are on ventilators or who are undergoing surgery for orthopedic implants, hysterectomies, and coronary bypass.

Identifying plant traits: A key aspect for species selection in restoration of eroded roadsides in semiarid environments

Abstract Selecting suitable species for revegetation purposes represents a great challenge for practitioners and scientists, especially in semiarid regions where restoration projects often yield unsuccessful results. So far, little attention has been paid to plant traits related to species success in roadside ecosystems. We aimed at (1) identifying plant traits associated with species success on four roadside situations that span a gradient of productivity and erosion stress and (2) providing an ecological base for selecting suitable species on the basis of their functional traits, applied to semiarid environments. We tested the general hypothesis that trait distribution of successful roadslope colonizers results from a filtering process which is mainly controlled first by seed availability and dispersal and then by plant competition on north-facing roadfills and by environmental harshness on south-facing roadcuts. We analyzed the contribution of 10 plant traits selected as regards the prevailing limiting processes acting along the erosion-productivity gradient in semiarid roadslopes to species colonizing success. A large database of 296 species × 10 traits based on leaf, seed and root measurements is provided. Abundance in the neighbouring vegetation, ability of diaspores to long-dispersal and non-random trait filtering through abiotic and biotic filters, all influenced roadslope community assembly. Along the stress-productivity gradient, we observed strong shifts in the traits associated to species success. At the most productive end, species success was associated to a competitive-ruderal strategy (herbaceous successful species with high SLA and low LDMC values) and, at the harshest end, species success was related to seed resistance to removal by runoff and to resistance to drought (seed mucilage secretion and low index of seed susceptibility to removal). We provide an ecological basis for selecting suitable species on the basis of morphological and functional plant traits, which is potentially of great benefit to practitioners and policy makers involved in roadside restoration in semiarid environments.

関東地方におけるマルグンバイ属（カメムシ目）の系統関係と基本的生態

関東地方におけるマルグンバイ属（カメムシ目）の系統関係と基本的生態

Spatio-temporal variations in underwater light climate, thermal and chemical characteristics of the tropical soda lake, Lake Shala, Ethiopia

Although soda lakes are highly sensitive to environmental changes and suited for the study of vital ecological processes owing to their unique biological and physicochemical properties and closed nature, there are limited studies on and knowledge of their basic ecology. In this study, temporal and vertical fluctuations of underwater light climate, thermal and chemical characteristics of the soda lake Lake Shala were studied using data collected on 11 occasions over an annual cycle. Measured parameters of underwater light climate depicted light-limited conditions with slight temporal variations, which are attributable to non-biological turbidity and high water column mixing depth. Its water column exhibited superficial thermal stratification with turbulently mixing and well-oxygenated conditions. Alkalinity, pH and conductivity were high but exhibited small temporal and vertical variations. These parameters increased slightly during the rainy season, possibly due to saline inflows associated with precipitation. Most of the major algal nutrients showed small temporal and vertical variations. NO3 − and NH3 in the euphotic zone were often very low or undetectable, while soluble reactive phosphate and total phosphorus were very high throughout the study period. The concentration of SiO2 was remarkably low, which was probably associated with biological uptake and some chemical processes within the lake. In general, physicochemical parameters of Lake Shala exhibited small temporal and vertical variations despite the current threat of environmental degradation, possibly because of the high resilience of the lake associated with its low productivity and voluminous nature.

Participating in a Citizen Science Monitoring Program: Implications for Environmental Education.

Tourism is of growing economical importance to many nations, in particular for developing countries. Although tourism is an important economic vehicle for the host country, its continued growth has led to on-going concerns about its environmental sustainability. Coastal and marine tourism can directly affect the environment through direct and indirect tourist activities. For these reasons tourism sector needs practical actions of sustainability. Several studies have shown how education minimizes the impact on and is proactive for, preserving the natural resources. This paper evaluates the effectiveness of a citizen science program to improve the environmental education of the volunteers, by means of questionnaires provided to participants to a volunteer-based Red Sea coral reef monitoring program (STEproject). Fifteen multiple-choice questions evaluated the level of knowledge on the basic coral reef biology and ecology and the awareness on the impact of human behaviour on the environment. Volunteers filled in questionnaires twice, once at the beginning, before being involved in the project and again at the end of their stay, after several days participation in the program. We found that the participation in STEproject significantly increased both the knowledge of coral reef biology and ecology and the awareness of human behavioural impacts on the environment, but was more effective on the former. We also detected that tourists with a higher education level have a higher initial level of environmental education than less educated people and that the project was more effective on divers than snorkelers. This study has emphasized that citizen science projects have an important and effective educational value and has suggested that tourism and diving stakeholders should increase their commitment and efforts to these programs

BIOLOGICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTIC OF BADGERS IN THE CHECHEN REPUBLIC

The article presents the results of long-term observations of the hunting-fishing kind of fauna of the CR - Badger. Studied feeding habits, reproduction, placement, as well as the influence of various factors on the strength and survival of the species. The study tested many modern methods of surveillance and data processing on many issues of biology and ecology of the species in all natural zones of the Republic. Methods: we used the methods of collecting faeces and traces of life, taking the number on the analysis of havens, accounting tracks. The feeding habits have been studied on the contents of stomachs and defining systematic conditioning food residue. Applied techniques Morphometry, morphological and physiological analysis. Results: the results of the research were obtained data on abundance and Habitat Badgers in the Chechen Republic, on the number of species in different natural zones. Describe the basic biology and ecology of the species, its morphological and physiological indicators. Describes in detail the feeding habits and reproduction of Badger in the foothills and high mountains, the influence of anthropogenic factors. Application results: the data obtained by environmental organizations for the development of measures to protect the species from poachers and illegal methods of extraction. Results of the study of biology and ecology can be used to analyze the influence of characteristics of natural and climatic conditions of the Chechen Republic to the environmental adaptation of species, assessing the practical value of Badgers in the wild.

A forest reconstruction model to assess changes to Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer forest during the fire suppression era

Fire suppression has resulted in dramatic changes to species composition and structural diversity in the Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer forests. We need a better understanding of how these forests have changed during the fire suppression era, but empirical historical datasets are rare and methodologies for developing new historical reference information are subject to limitations. We sought to develop historical reference information for the Yosemite Forest Dynamics Plot (YFDP), a research plot located in an old-growth mixed-conifer forest in Yosemite National Park. We performed a dendrochronologial fire history analysis to characterize the historical fire regime of the YFDP, resulting in an estimated pre-1900 point fire return interval of 29.5years. We then developed two different forest reconstruction models to estimate structural and compositional forest changes since 1900, the year the last widespread fire burned the YFDP, to the present. We explored the use of two different tree growth models—a regionally parameterized competition-dependent model and a parsimonious site-specific model—as well as a decay model based on published estimates of wood decay rates. The competition-dependent growth model predicted slightly higher stem densities (175 trees ha−1 vs. 112 trees ha−1 in 1900) and slightly lower basal area (20.9m2ha−1 vs. 24.1m2ha−1 in 1900) than the site-specific growth model. Predictions about dead trees, especially large diameter sugar pines, are potentially inaccurate, both in this study and other reconstruction studies in the Sierra Nevada, due to a lack of size-specific snag and log decay rate data. Our study highlights the need for more detailed decay data for Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer forests. While reconstruction models are constrained by the data used to parameterize them, they can still produce estimates of historical conditions that are useful for understanding the direction and magnitude of forest change, as well as for planning forest management. Our analysis demonstrates dramatic changes in forest conditions since fire-exclusion—a clear ecological basis for restoration. We encourage managers to focus on restoring key ecological processes that maintain ecosystem structure and function, in this case fire, rather than attempting tree-for-tree recreations of historical structure without reintroducing fire.

Nitrogen limitation as a driver of genome size evolution in a group of karst plants.

Genome size is of fundamental biological importance with significance in predicting structural and functional attributes of organisms. Although abundant evidence has shown that the genome size can be largely explained by differential proliferation and removal of non-coding DNA of the genome, the evolutionary and ecological basis of genome size variation remains poorly understood. Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are essential elements of DNA and protein building blocks, yet often subject to environmental limitation in natural ecosystems. Using phylogenetic comparative methods, we test this hypothesis by determining whether leaf N and P availability affects genome sizes in 99 species of Primulina (Gesneriaceae), a group of soil specialists adapted to limestone karst environment in south China. We find that genome sizes in Primulina are strongly positively correlated with plant N content, but the correlation with plant P content is not significant when phylogeny history was taken into account. This study shows for the first time that N limitation might have been a plausible driver of genome size variation in a group of plants. We propose that competition for nitrogen nutrient between DNA synthesis and cellular functions is a possible mechanism for genome size evolution in Primulina under N-limitation.

Compostagem e fermentação de resíduos de pescado para produção de fertilizantes orgânicos

The volumes of waste generated in the fishing activity are increasing due to the increase in demand for these products. This implies the need for fast processing and cycling of these materials. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the use of waste generated in the fishing activity as a source of organic fertilizers in agricultural production systems familiar ecological basis. The experiment was conducted at the Experimental Station Cascade / Embrapa Temperate Climate was assessed throughout the composting process and the fermentation of fish waste, identifying the main points that enable the use of these fertilizers in farming systems ecological base. The composting process of rice husk revealed be incomplete during the experiment. The compound prepared with fish waste and exhausted bark of acacia presents itself as a good source of nutrients for crops, which may be suitable as organic fertilizer for production of ecologically-based systems. For liquid organic fertilizer, the conditions under which the experiment was conducted, it is concluded that the compound resulting from aerobic or anaerobic fermentation of fish waste, present themselves as a viable source of nutrients for productive systems of ecological base. However, further studies need to be conducted to better understanding and qualification of both processes.

A cooperative approach to animal disease response activities: Analytical hierarchy process (AHP) and vvIBD in California poultry

Very virulent infectious bursal disease virus (vvIBDv) was first detected in the United States at the end of 2008. Since its detection, Federal and State animal health officials, the poultry industry and the research/academic community have led response activities through a collaborative effort. By June 2011, much still remained unknown regarding the basic epidemiology and ecology of vvIBD in California, although there were a number of potential activities to fill this information gap. Available resources limited the ability to pursue all the activities, and responsible parties and stakeholders recognized the need to prioritize the activities. The analytic hierarchy process (AHP) is a useful multi-criteria decision making methodology that incorporates qualitative information (in the form of judgments) with available quantitative information. This is especially useful when there is very limited quantitative information, such as in the situation with vvIBD in California. A commercial package that allows ready use of the AHP model was utilized for prioritizing activities, incorporating input from members from the three stakeholder groups: State and Federal animal health officials, poultry industry, and research/academia. Based on their inputs on 17 potential activities, the participants identified three priority activities; specifically determination of risk factors for re-emergence or re-introduction at affected premises, development of a laboratory diagnostic test to screen for segment B of the vvIBDV genome and surveillance of other potential reservoirs (mealworms, rodents, beetles). In order to evaluate the ability of the AHP to respond to differences, a sensitivity analysis was done in order to evaluate changes in prioritization of activities. Changes in prioritization were noted demonstrating the plasticity of the model under different conditions. However, a 50% increase or decrease in weighting was necessary to affect the order of the three highest scoring activities. The use of a tool such as the AHP enables the development of a transparent, repeatable and flexible decision process, which can be useful in certain animal health response situations including the re-emergence of a previously eliminated disease or the introduction of a foreign animal disease

Perspectives on the context‐dependency of stream community responses to contaminants

Summary Natural variation in the structure and function of aquatic communities along environmental or spatiotemporal gradients can influence how systems respond to biotic and abiotic disturbances. Although these context‐dependent responses are a well‐established element of basic ecology, they have received little attention from an ecotoxicological perspective. As the scope of freshwater bioassessment expands from single catchments to broad‐scale, regional surveys, it has become apparent that community responses to contaminants can vary significantly among locations. This variability is generally considered a nuisance and an impediment to recognising ecological patterns; however, natural spatiotemporal variation in communities also provides opportunities to test hypotheses about context‐dependent responses to contaminants in aquatic ecosystems. This study presents three examples of context‐dependent responses of benthic stream communities to contaminants. We show how longitudinal variation in community composition, the development of tolerance to contaminants and exposure to multiple stressors influence the historical context of a community and hence may determine community responses to contaminants. Aquatic ecotoxicologists have made significant progress identifying abiotic factors that influence contaminant bioavailability and toxicity. A similar effort could be undertaken to identify specific ecological factors (e.g. community composition, natural disturbance regimes and life‐history characteristics) that contribute to variation in susceptibility of communities to contaminants. Understanding the nature of context‐dependent responses and the mechanisms responsible for variation among communities should be a key element of ecological risk assessment and a research priority in ecotoxicology.

Management of North American Culicoides Biting Midges: Current Knowledge and Research Needs.

Culicoides biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) are biological vectors of two important viruses impacting North American ruminants--bluetongue virus (BTV) and epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV). These viruses have been identified for over 60 years in North America, but we still lack an adequate understanding of the basic biology and ecology of the confirmed vector, Culicoides sonorensis, and know even less about other putative Culicoides vector species. The major gaps in our knowledge of the biology of Culicoides midges are broad and include an understanding of the ecology of juveniles, the identity of potential alternate vector species, interactions of midges with both pathogens and vertebrates, and the effectiveness of potential control measures. Due to these broad and numerous fundamental knowledge gaps, vector biologists and livestock producers are left with few options to respond to or understand outbreaks of EHD or BT in North America, or respond to emerging or exotic Culicoides-transmitted pathogens. Here we outline current knowledge of vector ecology and control tactics for North American Culicoides species, and delineate research recommendations aimed to fill knowledge gaps.