Basic Drinking Water Research Articles

Pathway to equity in water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in Africa: Ethical Implications

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Clean drinking water and sanitation have been recognized as essential to the realization of all human rights by the United Nations General Assembly on 28 July 2010, through Resolution 64/292. Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6, committed countries to ensure the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all by 2030.The 2018 Africa Sustainable Development Report finds that access to safe drinking water and improved sanitation remains very low in Africa by global standards, there are wide disparities between and within countries, and 43% of Africa’s rural population has access to basic drinking water services compared to 82% of the urban population. What kinds of ethical reasoning need to be considered in the pathway to equity in water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in Africa within the context of growing population, industrialization, rapid urbanization and emerging challenges such as climate change, droughts, floods and mismanagement of waste water? What challenges and opportunities do the COVID-19 pandemic portends to the progress of availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation in Africa? How do we achieve the most good for the most people at the least cost? This talk will address these and the ethical dimensions of studies discussed in this session. METHODS: RESULTS: CONCLUSIONS: KEYWORDS: Ethics, water and sanitation, Africa

Bacteriological Quality and Heavy Metal Analysis of Packaged Water Produced in Lusaka, Zambia and Associated Quality Control Measures.

Many people in the world lack safe basic drinking water sources and rely on untreated water source. Packaged water can be considered as an alternative to other water sources if measures are put in place to ensure its safety for consumption. This study aimed to assess the bacteriological quality and heavy metal analysis of packaged water produced in Lusaka, Zambia and associated quality control measures. A cross-sectional study was conducted in May 2019 where 18 brands of packaged water were analyzed for total and fecal coliforms as well as concentrations of Lead, Chromium, and Cadmium. The study found that 33.5% of the packaged water produced in Lusaka did not comply with the standard for drinking water on bacteriological quality. We also found that the concentrations for Lead were <0.01 mg/l in all the 17 samples, thus compliant to WHO/ZABS standards. Concentrations of Chromium were between 0.002 and 0.62 mg/l and compliance to the standard was 11.8%. Concentrations for Cadmium were between 0.009 and 0.2 mg/l against the acceptable concentration of <0.003 mg/l. Most brands of the packaged water did not conform to the standards for drinking water.

Impact of poverty reduction on access to water and sanitation in low- and lower-middle-income countries: country-specific Bayesian projections to 2030.

In 2017, 785 million people globally lacked access to basic services of drinking water and 2 billion people lived without basic sanitation services. Most of these people live in low- and lower-middle-income countries in South Asia, Southeast Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. To monitor the progress towards universal access to water and sanitation, this study aimed to predict the coverage of access to basic drinking water supply and sanitation (WSS) services as well as the reduction in the practice of open defecation by 2030, under two assumptions: following the current trends and accelerated poverty reduction. Households reporting access to basic WSS services and those practising open defecation were extracted from 210 nationally representative Demographic Health Surveys and Multiple Cluster Indicator Surveys (1994-2016) from 51 countries. A Bayesian hierarchical mixed effect linear regression model was developed to predict the indicators in 2030 at national, urban-rural and wealth-specific levels. A Bayesian regression model with accelerated reduction in poverty by 2030 was applied to assess the impact of poverty reduction on these indicators. Out of 51 countries, only nine (Bangladesh, Bhutan, Ghana, India, Nepal, Pakistan, The Philippines, Togo and Vietnam) were predicted to reach over 90% coverage in access to basic services of drinking water by 2030. However, none of the countries were projected to achieve equivalent coverage for access to basic sanitation services. By 2030, 21 countries were projected to achieve the target of less than 10% households practising open defecation. Urban-rural and wealth-derived disparities in access to basic WSS services, especially sanitation, were more pronounced in sub-Saharan Africa than South Asia and Southeast Asia. Access to basic sanitation services was projected to benefit more from poverty reduction than access to basic drinking water services. Households residing in rural settings were predicted to receive greater benefit from poverty reduction than urban populations in access to both basic WSS services. Achieving poverty eradication targets may have a substantial positive impact on access to basic water supply and sanitation services. However, many low- and lower-middle-income countries will struggle to achieve the goal of universal access to basic services, especially in the sanitation sector.

Understanding the challenges governing Malawi’s water, sanitation and hygiene sector

ABSTRACT This paper explores the extent to which Malawi’s national water, sanitation and hygiene (WaSH) sector programmes align with the lived realities of Malawian people through interviews, observations and a review of secondary documents. Significant progress is unquestionably being made, but there are dangers in momentary achievements being romanticized, and under-capacity in shaping cultural practices, investing and maintaining longevity and sustainability of available infrastructures. We argue that managing the sector towards statistical summaries serves to confound well-intentioned governance frameworks and compliance regimes ultimately leaving behind a large proportion of the population without access to basic drinking water or improved sanitation.

Passive Permeate-Side-Heated Solar Thermal Membrane Distillation: Extracting Potable Water from Seawater, Surface Water, and Municipal Wastewater at High Single-Stage Solar Efficiencies

Globally, hundreds of millions of people still drink untreated surface water due to the lack of even a basic drinking water service and urgently need economical off-grid water treatment devices. A ...

Comparative assessment of cellulose nanofibers and calcium alginate beads for continuous Cu(II) adsorption in packed columns: the influence of water and surface hydrophobicity

While water is indispensable for life, around 785 million people do not have access to basic drinking water. Heavy metals present high toxicity at low concentrations, are non-biodegradable and easy to accumulate in living organisms such as human body, causing serious diseases or even death. Copper is usually found at high concentrations in wastewater due to its extensive use in several industrial applications, and effective copper removal systems must be developed. The present work aims at developing effective TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) based systems able to adsorb Cu(II) in adsorption columns. CNFs were partially modified with alkyl ketene dimer (AKD) to avoid regelation during flowing through the column, as it was experienced for those unmodified. Calcium alginate beads were used as reference, as there is extensive literature on their use as Cu(II) adsorbent. Breakthrough curves were obtained and modelled according to Bohart-Adams, Yoon-Nelson and Thomas models, concluding that the adsorption rate of CNFs was significantly higher than in the case of calcium alginate beads due to the negative effects of highly charged water and diffusion through the beads. In addition, CNF-based adsorption systems demonstrated to be effective, especially at the beginning of the tests, as they exhibited a well-defined sigmoidal behavior, which was not observed in the case of the calcium alginate beads. On the contrary, the adsorption capacity was higher in the case of the alginate-based system, mainly due to the higher carboxyl content and ion exchange capacity. Overall, the present work shows the feasibility of using a high-performance bio-based and nanostructured cellulose material as Cu(II) adsorbent by means of a fast, simple, and effective chemical modification based on surface esterification.

Universal Access to Clean Water for Tribes: Recommendations for Operational, Administrative, Policy, and Regulatory Reform

Access to clean drinking water is a fundamental human right. As highlighted by the COVID-19 pandemic, basic water and sanitation services are critical to public health and economic development. The federal government has treaty and trust responsibilities to promote the general welfare of Tribes. Although various federal programs exist to support water-related projects in Indian country, these programs historically have been underfunded. As a result, many Native American households remain without access to clean drinking water or adequate sanitation. Recent actions by the Biden Administration and Congress are bringing the necessary attention and financial resources to make real, tangible progress toward providing universal access to clean water for all Americans. Through bipartisan efforts, Congress passed the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, which included substantial funding for the Indian Health Service and Tribal funding within the Environmental Protection Agency, which can be used for drinking water projects for Tribal communities. For the first time in history, this funding will enable the federal government to more fully deliver on its responsibilities to provide basic drinking water service to Tribes. This report provides recommendations for administrative action and agency reform to ensure that this unique opportunity is maximized. The report begins by outlining how to achieve the necessary “whole of government” approach to providing universal clean water access, followed by agency-specific recommendations. Recognizing the importance of Tribal sovereignty and self-determination, the report concludes with a discussion of Tribal capacity and resources to build the foundation for long-term success.

Geographical trend analysis of COVID-19 pandemic onset in Africa

Little has been documented in literature concerning the manner of occurrence and spread of COVID-19 in Africa. Understanding the geographic nature of the corona virus pandemic may offer critical response signals for Africa. This paper employed analysis of variance (ANOVA) to show that significant variations exist among African countries’, particularly total population as well as those using basic drinking water services, gross national income, expenditure on health, number of physicians and air transport passengers. Although we have only considered the number of confirmed corona virus infections noting that the fatality may be too early to discuss, we have relied on data from the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) to establish a significant association between international mobility based on average annual air passenger carried (r ​= ​0.6) which also successfully predicted (R 2 ​= ​0.501) the number of COVID-19 cases reported in each country along with the population density (R 2 ​= ​0.418). We also detected that COVID-19 cases report y geometrically increased daily x (R 2 ​= ​0.860) with a 2nd order polynomial equation in the form of y ​= ​0.3993 ​× ​2–8.7569 x and a clustered spatial pattern with a nearest neighbour ratio of 0.025 significant at 0.05 α-level. African countries have responded to the pandemic in different ways including partial lockdown, closure of borders and airports as well as providing test centres. We concluded that 40% of Africa are categorized as emerging hot spots while responses differ significantly across regions.

Comparative Analysis of WASH Services between the Rich and Poor in Sub-Saharan Africa

Achieving the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 would mean that all people the world over would have access to basic drinking water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services. This study analyzed WASH services between the poorest and richest quintile in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The descriptive cross sectional design was adopted. Data for the study were extracted from the 2019 Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) report, which contained disaggregated data on wealth quintiles. The data obtained were analyzed with tables, percentages and t-test. The findings revealed that WASH amenities in SSA were generally poor, especially with the poorest quintile, which was disproportionately disadvantaged. The t-test indicated a significant difference in the provision of WASH services between both quintiles in SSA, as the calculated t-test values for water and sanitation services of 18.772 and 15.317, respectively were higher than the table value of 2.021 at an alpha level of 0.05; while the calculated t-test value (10) for hygiene services was higher than the table value of 2.042 at 0.05 alpha level. Considering the state of WASH facilities, SSA would miss the SDG 6, unless concerted efforts are made to address the myriad of challenges confronting the provisions of WASH services in SSA. The study therefore made recommendations to address the challenges.

Ліквідація злиденності в світі: оцінка прогресу та тенденції фінансування

The article analyzes the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals for the eradication of poverty in the world and by regions in 2000 - 2020. Significant progress has been made in reducing the share of the employed population living below the poverty line in the world as a whole. Uneven progress has been identified in reducing the share of the employed population below the poverty line by region (reductions in East Asia, Southeast Asia, Central Asia, South Asia, Oceania, sub-Saharan Africa; increases in West Asia, North Africa, and Latin America and the Caribbean); uneven progress in social protection assistance (increase in the share of the population covered by at least one type of social protection assistance in South Asia, East Asia, Oceania and Sub-Saharan Africa; reduction in South-East Asia, North Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, Central and Western Asia). There has been an improvement in the results of access to basic services for the poorest sections of the population (increase in the share of the population using basic drinking water services, access to basic sanitation services) with a simultaneous slowdown in access to basic services by region since 2010. A sharp reduction during 2000-2019 in the provision of official development assistance to developed countries aimed at reducing poverty. Measures have been identified in the field of financing poverty eradication programs (intensification of international cooperation for development) (implementation of indicators of official development assistance by developed countries), implementation of effective measures in the areas of domestic public resources, private business).

Farm-to-Tap Water Treatment: Naturally-Sourced Photosensitizers for Enhanced Solar Disinfection of Drinking Water

Universal access to basic drinking water services remains elusive, especially for rural communities of low- and lower-middle income countries where financial constraints restrict the implementation...

Water, sanitation and hygiene in health facilities and how they affect health in European countries

Abstract Background Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) are human rights as well as important targets of the Sustainable Development Goals and a key component of quality of healthcare. Poor access to safe WASH impacts patients' health as it increases the risk of contracting infectious diseases, mental distress or avoidance of WASH services with additional negative health consequences. Global statistics show that the greatest risk exists in developing countries, while there is little data available from the WHO European Region. Our research aims at gathering an up-to-date overview of WASH data and health consequences on the example of a number of districts from four middle- and high-income countries in the European Region. Methods A mixed-methods analysis was conducted, including literature review, one-shot surveys addressing different types of healthcare services and different socio-economical settings, policy analyses, expert interviews and desk-review of health statistics. Results Preliminary results show that differences and commonalities are observed with respect to the WASH provision and management in healthcare across the considered areas in the region. While basic drinking-water is widely provided, other aspects, such as sanitation, are in need of attention both at the regulatory and implementation level. Also within countries, local differences are observed. Conditions of WASH services in health care are linked with the spread of (resistant) nosocomial infections through many different pathogens with consequences for patients, mothers and children, and for the broader population, influencing morbidity and mortality. Conclusions New insights on the condition of WASH services in healthcare facilities and increasing relevance of WASH-related health outcomes, such as antimicrobial resistance and nosocomial infections, show the need for increased attention to basic services such as sanitation and hygiene in healthcare also in European countries and for locally-targeted interventions. Key messages Water, sanitation and hygiene are a critical component of quality of health care and severely affect staff’s performance and patients’ health, with consequences for the population. Water, sanitation and hygiene need more attention in middle- and high-income countries in the WHO European Region, both at the regulatory and implementation level.

Impact of Poverty Reduction on Access to Water and Sanitation in Low- and Lower-Middle-Income Countries: Country-Specific Bayesian Projections to 2030

Background: In 2017, 785 million people globally lacked access to basic drinking water services and 2 billion people lived without basic sanitation services, mostly in low- and lower-middle-income countries. We aimed to predict the coverage of access to water and sanitation services by 2030, under two conditions: following the current trends and accelerating poverty reduction. Methods: Households reporting access to basic drinking water services, basic sanitation facilities and practicing open defecation were extracted from 210 nationally representative Demographic Health Surveys and Multiple Cluster Indicator Surveys (1994-2016) including 51 countries. A Bayesian hierarchical, mixed effect linear regression model was developed to predict the indicators in 2030 at the national, rural-urban and wealth specific levels. A Bayesian regression model with 95% reduction in poverty by 2030 was applied to assess the contribution of poverty reduction to these indicators. Findings: Out of 51 countries, only nine (Bangladesh, Bhutan, Ghana, India, Nepal, Pakistan, The Philippines, Togo and Vietnam) were predicted to reach over 90% coverage in access to basic services of drinking water by 2030. However, none achieved 90% coverage for basic sanitation services. Twenty-one countries achieved the target of less than 10% households practicing open defecation. The rural-urban and wealth disparities in access to basic water and sanitation services, especially sanitation, were more pronounced in Sub-Saharan Africa. By accelerating poverty reduction, the sanitation sector and households in rural settings benefitted considerably. Interpretation: Achieving poverty eradication targets has a substantial positive impact on access to basic water supply and sanitation services. However, many low- and lower-middle-income countries will struggle to achieve the goal of universal access to basic services, especially in the sanitation sector. Funding Statement: KTS was funded by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan. Declaration of Interests: The authors declared there was no conflict of interest. Ethics Approval Statement: Not required.

Determinants of Under-Five Mortality in Southern Asia

Under-five mortality is one of the important indicators for measuring the overall child health status of a country or region. One of the sub-goals of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs-2015) is reduction of under-five mortality rate to at least as low as 25 deaths per 1,000 live births by 2030. The present study aims at investigating the determinants of under-five mortality in Southern Asia. The results of the GLS Random Effects regression found adolescent fertility rate, measles immunization, basic drinking water services, prevalence of anemia among children and current health expenditure to be significant determinants of under-five mortality.

Geographical inequalities in drinking water in the Solomon Islands

Sustainable Development Goal 6.1 seeks to “by 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water”, which is challenging particularly in Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Pacific Island Countries (PIC). We report drinking water sources and services in the Solomon Islands and examine geographical inequalities.Based on two quantitative baseline datasets of n = 1,598 rural and n = 1,068 urban households, we analyzed different drinking water variables (source type, collection time, amount, use, perceived quality, storage, treatment) and a composite index, drinking water service level. We stratified data by urban and rural areas and by province, mapped, and contextualized them.There are substantive rural–urban drinking water inequalities in the Solomon Islands. Overall, urban households are more likely to: use improved drinking water sources, need less time to collect water, collect more water, store their water more safely, treat water prior to consumption, perceive their water quality as better and have an at least basic drinking water service than rural households. There are also provincial and center-periphery inequalities in drinking water access, with more centrally located provinces using piped water supplies and more distant and remote provinces using rainwater and surface water as their primary source. There are also inter-national inequalities. Out of all PICs, the Solomon Islands have among the lowest access to basic drinking water services: 92% of urban and 55% of rural households. Of all SIDS, PICs are least serviced.This study shows that drinking water inequality is a critical issue, and highlights that all identified dimensions of inequality - rural–urban, provincial, center-periphery and inter-national - need to be explicitly recognized and addressed and included in pro-equity monitoring, policy and programming efforts by the Solomon Islands Government and stakeholders to reduce inequalities as per the Agenda 2030.

The Effect of Healthcare Expenditure on the Health Outcomes in Sub-Saharan African Countries

Health is a major component for a fulfilled life that everyone in the world desires to acquire. Governments are expected to play a vital role in providing quality health service to their people. Even though an increased health care expenditure is mostly considered as a primary contributor for an improved health outcome, empirical studies however indicate controversial results. The primary objective of this paper is to examine the effect of health expenditure on the selected health outcomes (Life Expectancy, Infant Mortality, Under-Five Mortality and Crude death) in Sub Saharan Africa. The linear dynamic generalized method of moments instrumental variable (GMM-IV) was used on a panel of 39 Sub-Saharan African Countries for the years 1995-2014. Results of this study showed that health expenditure significantly improves life expectancy and lowers infant mortality, under-five mortality &amp; crude death in Sub Saharan Africa. The separate effects of Public and private health expenditures have also shown a significant positive relationship on life expectancy and negative on infant mortality, under-five mortality &amp; crude death. The one period lag of health expenditure was estimated and the regression results indicated statistically significant relationship with health outcomes. In addition to health expenditure, other determinants like Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita, urbanization, immunization and basic drinking water brought improvement on life expectancy, infant mortality, under-five mortality &amp; crude death. In contrast, HIV prevalence and unemployment are factors that reduce life expectancy and increase infant mortality, under-five mortality &amp; crude death. This study indicated that health expenditure is an important element in attaining improved health outcome in Sub-Saharan African Countries. Therefore, increasing the amount of health expenditure allocated to the health sector yields a better health status. More on, revising policies to improve GDP per capita, immunization, urbanization and basic drinking water service, and strategies intended to reduce HIV prevalence and unemployment assure a better health outcome.

Status of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Facilities in Public Secondary Schools in Yenagoa, Nigeria

Adequate water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services have positive implications on students learning outcomes. Hence, this study assessed the status of WASH services in public secondary schools in Yenagoa. The study adopted a descriptive cross-sectional survey design, which involved direct field observation of WASH facilities and the administration of structured questionnaire to the entire 16 public secondary schools in Yenagoa. However, the analysis involved 15 schools, as one of the schools did not return its questionnaire. Data obtained was analyzed using descriptive statistics and the Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) classification of WASH services in schools. The results show that WASH services in most of the schools are inadequate and unsatisfactory. Hygiene service was the worst provided WASH services in the schools as only two (13.33%) schools had basic hygiene service, one (6.67%) school had limited hygiene service and 12 (80%) schools had no service. Next was water service where three (20%) schools had basic drinking water service, another three (20%) schools had limited drinking water service and nine (60%) schools had no water service. Although sanitation had the best WASH coverage in the schools, basic sanitation service was only obtainable in seven (46.67%) schools, limited sanitation service in five (33.33%) schools and no service in three (20%) schools. Also, the toilet to students’ ratio ranges from 1:27 to 1:760, which were higher than the WHO recommended average of 1:25 for girls and 1:50 for boys. The study recommends the prioritization of the provision of WASH services in schools.

Composite of chitosan and Bentonite as coagulant agents in removing turbidity from Ismailia canal as water treatment plant.

The use of chemical coagulants is not suitable due to health and economic considerations. In the last time, the use of natural additives that are biocompatible, are biodegradable, have low toxicity and are from renewable resources attracted the attention of many types of research due to their high ability to retain different pollutants from wastewaters. Ismaili Canal is one of the most important tributaries of the River Nile in Egypt. This study successfully proved the effectiveness of the combination of chitosan and bentonite as a coagulating agent in the (Ismailia canal) for the wastewater treatment process. Chitosan and Bentonite were known as coagulant agents, thus were used in this study. Laboratory tests were conducted to test the water quality based on turbidity values and basic drinking water parameters. Chitosan and Bentonite can be applied on (Ismailia canal) resulting in a turbidity removal 97.7% at 30 minutes. The optimal dosage of bentonite(clay) combined with chitosan(polymer) was 5 and 1mg/L at PH=7.4.

A social-ecological analysis of drinking water risks in coastal Bangladesh

Groundwater resources in deltaic regions are vulnerable to contamination by saline seawater, posing significant crisis for drinking water. Current policy and practice of building water supply infrastructure, without adequate hydrogeological analysis and institutional coordination are failing to provide basic drinking water services for millions of poor people in such difficult hydrogeological contexts. We apply a social-ecological systems approach to examine interdisciplinary data from hydrogeological mapping, a water infrastructure audit, 2103 household surveys, focus group discussions and interviews to evaluate the risks to drinking water security in one of 139 polders in coastal Bangladesh. We find that increasing access through public tubewells is common but insufficient to reduce drinking water risks. In response, there has been a four-fold growth in private investments in shallow tubewells with new technologies and entrepreneurial models to mitigate groundwater salinity. Despite these interventions, poor households in water-stressed environments face significant trade-offs in drinking water quality, accessibility and affordability. We argue that institutional coordination and hydrogeological monitoring at a systems level is necessary to mitigate socio-ecological risks for more equitable and efficient outcomes.

\u2018Mankind owes to the child the best that it has to give\u2019: prison conditions and the health situation and rights of children incarcerated with their mothers in sub-Saharan African prisons

BackgroundIn recent times, sub-Saharan African (SSA) prisons have seen a substantial increase in women prisoners, including those incarcerated with children.MethodsA scoping review mapped what is currently known about the health situation and unique rights violations of children incarcerated with their mothers in SSA prisons. A systematic search collected and reviewed all available and relevant published and grey literature (2000–2018). Following application of exclusion measures, 64 records remained, which represented 27 of the 49 SSA countries. These records were charted and thematically analysed.ResultsFour main themes were generated as follows: 1) the prison physical environment; 2) food availability, adequacy and quality; 3) provision of basic necessities and 4) availability and accessibility of health services for incarcerated children.ConclusionsThe review highlights the grave situation of children incarcerated with their mothers in SSA prisons, underpinned by the lack of basic necessities, inadequate hygiene, sanitation and safe drinking water, exposure to diseases in overcrowded cells, inadequate nutrition, lack of provision of clothing and bedding, and difficulties accessing paediatric care. Reported paediatric morbidity and mortality associated with such prison conditions is deeply concerning and contrary to international mandates for the rights of the child, right to health and standards of care.