Base Metal Mineralization Research Articles

Some Contributions of Irish Base Metal Mining

Some Contributions of Irish Base Metal Mining

The north-subducting Rheic Ocean during the Devonian: consequences for the Rhenohercynian ore sites

Base metal mining in the Rhenohercynian Zone has a long history. Middle-Upper Devonian to Lower Carboniferous sediment-hosted massive sulfide deposits (SHMS), volcanic-hosted massive sulfide deposits (VHMS) and Lahn-Dill-type iron, and base metal ores occur at several sites in the Rhenohercynian Zone that stretches from the South Portuguese Zone, through the Lizard area, the Rhenish Massif and the Harz Mountain to the Moravo-Silesian Zone of SW Bohemia. During Devonian to Early Carboniferous times, the Rhenohercynian Zone is seen as an evolving rift system developed on subsiding shelf areas of the Old Red continent. A reappraisal of the geotectonic setting of these ore deposits is proposed. The Middle-Upper Devonian to Early Carboniferous time period was characterized by detrital sedimentation, continental intraplate and subduction-related volcanism. The large shelf of the Devonian Old Red continent was the place of thermal subsidence with contemporaneous mobilization of rising thermal fluids along activated Early Devonian growth faults. Hydrothermal brines equilibrated with the basement and overlying Middle-Upper Devonian detrital deposits forming the SHMS deposits in the southern part of the Pyrite Belt, in the Rhenish Massif and in the Harz areas. Volcanic-hosted massive sulfide deposits (VHMS) formed in the more eastern localities of the Rhenohercynian domain. In contrast, since the Tournaisian period of ore formation, dominant pull-apart triggered magmatic emplacement of acidic rocks, and their metasomatic replacement in the apical zones of felsic domes and sediments in the northern part of the Iberian Pyrite belt, thus changing the general conditions of ore precipitation. This two-step evolution is thought to be controlled by syn- to post-tectonic phases in the Variscan framework, specifically by the transition of geotectonic setting dominated by crustal extension to a one characterized by the subduction of the supposed northern slab of the Rheic Ocean preceding the general Late Variscan crustal shortening and oroclinal bending.

Alteration Facies Linkages Among Iron Oxide Copper-Gold, Iron Oxide-Apatite, and Affiliated Deposits in the Great Bear Magmatic Zone, Northwest Territories, Canada

High-temperature metasomatism driven by ascent of voluminous, saline fluid columns in the upper crust plays a major role in the genesis of iron oxide-alkali alteration ore systems but fundamental questions remain on genetic linkages among iron oxide copper-gold (IOCG), iron oxide-apatite (IOA), albitite-hosted uranium, and skarn deposits that they produce. Excellent surface exposures of such systems in the Great Bear magmatic zone of northernwestern Canada record the depth to paleosurface, prograde evolution of iron oxide-alkali alteration facies, and mineralization. Across the belt, albitite corridors that are tens of kilometers in length record the earliest reactions between highly saline fluids and host rocks along fault zones and subvolcanic intrusions. Pervasive albitization partitioned metals from the host rocks into the ascending fluid column, leaving behind structurally weakened corridors of porous albitite. These corridors were cut, replaced, and overprinted by amphibole- and magnetite-bearing, calcic-iron alteration assemblages. In extreme cases, the discharge of calcium, iron, and specialized metals formed iron oxide-apatite deposits (±vanadium ± rare earth elements) while recharging the outgoing fluids in sodium, potassium, and base and precious metals. As temperatures declined and fluid chemistry evolved through fluid-rock reactions, the formation of potassic-iron alteration assemblages, breccias, and sulfides resulted in magnetite- and hematite-group IOCG mineralization. Within carbonate units, skarns formed prior to, are replaced by, and evolved to calcic-iron alteration facies. Skarns can locally host base metal mineralization. Tectonically uplifted albitite breccias replaced by potassic-iron alteration assemblages became a preferential host for uranium mineralization. The results of this study also illustrate that permutations and cyclical build-up of alteration products can arise from a combination of faulting, differential uplift, and renewed magmatism. Framed within an alteration-facies deposit model, alteration zones and mineral occurrences play a pivotal role in predicting the mineral potential of iron oxide and alkali-altered systems at district to deposit scales.

MINERALOGY AND GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE KOCADAL (TORUL, GÜMÜŞHANE, EASTERN BLACK SEA REGION, TURKEY) Zn-Pb-Ag, Au and Cu MINERALIZATIONS

The Kocadal base and precious metal mineralizations are located in the southwest of Gümüşhane province of the eastern Pontide orogenic belt. In the vicinity of the Kocadal mineralization, Gümüşhane granite, lithologies of the Hamurkesen, Berdiga, and Mescitli formations, dacite porphyry and andesite porphyry are present with abundant alluvium. Based on geological, mineralogical, and geochemical features, three mineralization styles have been recognized at the Kocadal area: (i) Mineralizations around Batarya tepe include (ia) Zn mineralization within the conglomerates and sandstones of the Hamurkesen formation and (ib) Zn-Pb-Ag-(Au) mineralization associated with dacite prophyry, (ii) Au mineralization, which occurs to the southwestern of Batarya tepe, and (iii) Cu mineralizations related to quartz veins and veinlets at Gözelerin Dere. Mineralized gravels within the conglomerates contains mainly sphalerite and pyrite, whereas hydrothermal mineralizations associated with porphyritic dacite comprise pyrite and sphalerite, with minor galena, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, marcasite, fahlerz, pyrargyrite, and proustite. Alteration patterns of hydrothermal mineralization in the field, from older to younger, are classified as: (i) tremolite-actinolite±garnet, (ii) quartz-sericite-chlorite, and (iii) carbonate-quartz. Mineralized gravels within the conglomerates contains mainly sphalerite and pyrite, whereas pyrite, chalcopyrite, and galena are common in quartz veins at Gözelerin Dere. Geostatistical studies based on the results of geochemical analysis of core samples reveal the presence of the distinct element associations for the different styles of mineralizations.

Formation stages and ore matter sources of the Devdoraki copper deposit, Kazbek volcanic center, the Greater Caucasus

Comprehensive petrological–mineralogical, geochronological, and isotope-geochemical studies have been carried out at the Devdoraki copper deposit situated in the Kazbek neovolcanic center, the frontier territory between Georgia and Russia. The formation history of this deposit has been deciphered on the basis of K–Ar isotopic geochronological data, and the multistage evolution of ore–magmatic system has been established. The subeconomic disseminated and less abundant stringer pyrite mineralization formed at the first stage in the Early Cretaceous back to 130–120 Ma at the retrograde stage of regional metamorphism. The second productive stage was related to intense Quaternary volcanism of the Kazbek center. The late stringer base-metal mineralization formed about 400 ka ago in connection with the activity of minor volcanoes in the eastern part of deposit. In its western part adjoining the Kazbek volcanic cone, ore formation apparently continued over the entire period of recent magmatic activity from 400 to 100 ka ago. It is quite probable that this process is currently proceeding at deep levels of the Devdoraki deposit. Pb–Pb isotope-geochemical data show that Jurassic metasedimentary rocks that host sulfide mineralization could have been a main source of matter for early pyrite. At the second stage of base-metal mineralization formation, the source of ore matter was earlier metamorphic pyrite combined with hydrothermal solutions related to Quaternary endogenic activity within the Kazbek volcanic center. Gangue mineral matter (quartz, carbonates) was supplied simultaneously from the postmagmatic hydrothermal solution and host shale.

Temporal evolution of mineralization events in the Bohemian Massif inferred from the Re–Os geochronology of molybdenite

Molybdenite is a common mineral accompanying Sn–W, Au, and base metal mineralizations located in different geotectonic units of the Bohemian Massif, but it is also widespread in granitoids and/or related quartz veins/pegmatites forming disseminated Mo mineralization. Thirty Re–Os ages were obtained for molybdenite samples from the Bohemian Massif to provide constraints on the timing and duration of mineralization event(s) within the framework of previously published geochronological data for the host and/or associated rocks. The obtained data for Sn–W–(Li) deposits in the Erzgebirge metallogenetic province indicate the predominance of one and/or multiple short-time mineralization events taking place between ∼319 and 323 Ma, with the exception of the Krupka deposit associated with the Altenberg–Teplice caldera where the data may suggest prolonged activity until ∼315 Ma. The ages of the Pb–Zn–(Au–Mo) Hůrky u Rakovnika and Fe–Cu–As Obři důl mineralizations from the exocontacts of the Cista pluton and Krkonose-Jizera Plutonic Complex, respectively, provide evidence for synchronous emplacement of the ore and the associated granitic rocks. In contrast, the Padrť Fe–As–Mo mineralization postdates the age of the associated Padrť granite. Disseminated Mo mineralization in Cadomian and Variscan granitoids and/or related to quartz veins/pegmatites provides Re–Os ages that overlap with the previously published geochronological data for the host rocks, suggesting coeval evolution. Molybdenite samples from the Sazava suite granites of the Central Bohemian Plutonic Complex (CBPC) have resolvable younger ages than their host granites, but similar to the age of spatially related Au mineralization which is associated with the latest evolution of the CBPC.

Discontinuum Modelling Approach for Stress Analysis at a Seismic Source: Case Study

Rockbursts in underground mines can cause devastating damage to mine workings; hence, it is important to be able to assess the potential for their occurrence. The present study focuses on a large seismic event that took place at an underground base metal mine in Canada. The event took place in a dyke near the 100/900 orebodies on 3880 Level (1180 m below surface) of the Copper Cliff Mine in Sudbury, Canada. A 3D continuum stress analysis of the orebodies, i.e., 100 and 900, using an orebody-wide model encompassing the major geological structures and in situ stress heterogeneity in the mine shows low potential for rockburst at the seismic source location—a result which contradicts the fact that a large seismic event actually took place. A postulation is thus made that there had been highly stressed regions caused by geological disturbances at the source location before mining activities took place. In order to verify the postulation, a further study is undertaken with the discrete element modelling technique, whereby a cube-shaped model containing a fracture network is subjected to a stress state similar to that at the source location. A model parametrical study is conducted with respect to the distribution of the fracture (joint) network and its mechanical properties. The results reveal that when joints are densely distributed at the source location, the stress state becomes significantly burst prone. It is observed that the length, density, stiffness, and orientation of joints have a large influence on the stress state along the joints, while the friction angle, cohesion, and tensile strength do not influence the stress state. A cube-shaped model is constructed with joint sets actually mapped at the mine and a stress analysis is performed. The results demonstrate the generation of highly stressed regions due to the interaction of the joints with the applied in situ stress fields, thus leading to burst-prone conditions. The present study numerically confirms that a preexisting fracture network found within a stiff rockmass could lead to burst-prone stress state at relatively moderate mining depths.

Lithological discrimination based on statistical analysis of multi-sensor drill core logging data in the Matagami VMS district, Quebec, Canada

In mineral exploration, traditional core logging is largely based on the visual inspection of drilled cores, a process which is often subjective and non-reproducible. However, a number of physical, chemical and mineralogical properties of rocks can now be measured at high spatial resolution on drill cores. The resulting large multiparameter databases can help geologists to quantitatively discriminate between lithologies, study hydrothermal alteration, and potentially vector towards mineralization. Multivariate statistical methods are important tools to assist geologists in interpreting such large databases. We present an application of model-based cluster analysis in the Matagami base metal mining district, more specifically to improve lithological discrimination at the zinc-rich Bracemac and McLeod volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits. The model-based cluster analysis method is able to efficiently discriminate different geological units encountered, even in cases where two units are visually similar or in the presence of strong hydrothermal alteration.

Detection of zinc deposits using terrestrial ferromanganese crusts

Ferromanganese crusts, coatings of iron oxide and manganese (oxyhydr)oxide minerals, occur in various forms on a broad range of surface materials in the subaerial environment. Manganese (oxyhydr)oxide minerals in particular, have very high adsorption capacities for heavy metals and trace elements. Thus in the scenario whereby metals from ore deposits are liberated and mobilized to the surface and interact with ferromanganese crusts, there is potential for such crusts to adsorb anomalous concentrations of target and pathfinder elements, thereby offering a potential sampling medium during geochemical exploration.Two case studies were undertaken at known base metal deposits, the >200m deep Abra and <50m deep Prairie-Wolf polymetallic deposits in the Capricorn Orogen terrane in Western Australia, where ferromanganese crusts are abundant at surface. Elemental mapping and microprobe analysis identified alternating laminae of Fe oxide and Mn (oxyhydr)oxide minerals in the crusts, and confirm the presence of Zn preferentially incorporated in Mn (oxyhydr)oxide layers. Selective leaching of Mn (oxyhydr)oxide within ferromanganese crusts followed by ICP-MS analysis yielded a broad range of results. High Zn/Mn ratios (>6∗10−3) were returned from crusts proximal to the Prairie-Wolf deposits, and ratios in crusts decreased to as low as <1∗10−3 with decreasing proximity to the mineralization. Ferromanganese crusts directly overlying mineralization at Abra, however, yielded low Zn/Mn ratios. This is interpreted to be a function of limited vertical mobilization of metals and preferential Mn scavenging in soils.Our results suggest deposits which lie deep below the base of weathering that are geochemically-blind remain difficult to detect, but the analysis of ferromanganese crusts from semi-arid environments can be used to detect relatively shallow base metal mineralization.

Timing and metal sources for carbonate-hosted Zn-Pb mineralization in the Franklinian Basin (North Greenland): Constraints from Rb-Sr and Pb isotopes

Carbonate-hosted Zn-Pb (± barite, fluorite) occurrences in the Franklinian Basin of North Greenland were studied using the Rb-Sr method, applied to sphalerite, and combined Sr and Pb isotope analysis of ore and gangue minerals, to place constraints on their age and genesis. The occurrences are located in the easternmost part of the basin in Peary Land and Kronprins Christian Land, and are hosted by Upper Ordovician to lowermost Silurian dolostones of the Turesø Formation.Sphalerite samples from the Zn-Pb occurrence at Børglum, in Peary Land, reflect undisturbed Rb-Sr systems and return an isochron age of 388±4Ma (MSWD=1.6, 87Sr/86Sri=0.70930±1). Sphalerites and their fluid inclusion fractions from an adjacent Zn-Pb occurrence, at Tvilum, exhibit various degrees of isotopic disturbance caused by secondary fluid overprint. They yield no age, however, reconstructive modelling of their Rb-Sr and Pb-Pb signatures indicates original isotope systematics consistent with the Børglum data. Likewise, due to a lack of suitable samples, no Rb-Sr age could be determined for a third occurrence in southeastern Peary Land at Løgum, however, the time-integrated Pb isotopic evolution of fluorite and calcite from this mineralization over c. 390Ma is compatible with modelled initial signatures for Tvilum and Børglum ores. Consequently, a contemporaneous formation at c. 390Ma can be assumed for all studied locations in Peary Land. For the Zn-Pb occurrence in Kronprins Christian Land farther east, a Rb-Sr sphalerite age of c. 360–365Ma has been obtained through a combined isochron and paleomixing line approach.The absolute ages obtained at the studied occurrences, corresponding to Middle to Upper Devonian ages, are in no conflict with the age of the host dolostones of the Turesø Formation, which placed a maximum age limit for the mineralization. Actually, the fact that mineralization was emplaced at least 50Ma after deposition of the host rocks, which would have been completely lithified by then, warrants the classification of the studied occurrences as epigenetic Mississippi Valley-Type, rather than diagenetic Irish-type. Furthermore, the obtained ages are contemporaneous to the Middle or Upper Devonian to the Lower Carboniferous Ellesmerian Orogeny, indicating that the mineralization likely formed from basinal brines expelled by tectonism and/or hydraulic head caused by Ellesmerian orogenic uplift, as previously suggested for the Polaris carbonate-hosted Zn-Pb deposit (Cornwallis Island, Canada).Pb isotope systematics of base metal mineralization in the Franklinian Basin point to principal metal sources located in the crystalline basement and in basement-derived clastic sediments. These two reservoirs define radiogenic and unradiogenic end components from which lead was mobilized and mixed in different proportions during discrete periods of hydrothermal activity. Distinct thorogenic Pb isotope signatures indicate that specific local sources (lower crustal basement, carbonate rocks and possibly organic-rich shales) were also involved in mineralization.

A secondary precious and base metal mineralization in chromitites linked to the development of a Paleozoic accretionary complex in Central Chile

Platinum-group element (PGE) and gold inclusions are usually present in peridotites and chromitite deposits associated with ophiolites. Here, we present the first detailed study of the mineralogy of precious metals in ultramafic rocks hosted in the Paleozoic Coastal Accretionary Complex of Central Chile. In these ultramafic rocks the mineralization of precious metals is associated with small meter-size pods and veins of massive chromitite hosted in serpentinite-filled shear zones. Crystallographic orientation maps of single chromite grains, obtained using the Electron-Backscattered Secondary Diffraction technique, allow us to identify two types of chromite in the precious-metal bearing chromitites: (1) Type A chromite, characterized by an average misorientation per grain of ≤2° and chemically homogeneous cores surrounded by a porous rim with abundant inclusions of chlorite, and (2) Type B chromite, which exhibits higher degrees of misorientation (2–8°) and porosity, and abundant silicate inclusions, but a relatively homogeneous chemical composition. In situ analyses using EMPA and LA-ICP-MS for major, minor and trace elements indicate that composition of the magmatic chromite is only preserved in the cores of Type A chromite grains. Core to rim chemical trends in these Type A chromites are characterized by a progressive increase of the Cr# with a decrease of the Mg#, loss of Al and addition of Fe2+ in the porous rim. The observed changes in the microstructure and chemistry of chromite are associated with the infiltration of external fluids through shear zones filled with antigorite (±talc) developed in partly serpentinized peridotites (i.e., olivine–lizardite dunites). Thermodynamic calculations using the phase equilibria relations in the system Cr2O3–MgO–FeO–Al2O3–SiO2–H2O (CrMFASH) indicate that Fe2+-rich porous chromite+chlorite replaced the original assemblage chromite+olivine in the chromitite while prograde antigorite was formed. According to our results this transformation occurred at ~510–560°C when external fluids penetrated the ultramafic/chromitite bodies through shear zones. These temperatures are slightly higher than estimated for the metamorphic peak in the host metapelitic rocks (i.e., ~420°C at 9.3kbar), suggesting that a hotter ultramafic body was captured by the metasediments of the accretionary prism during their exhumation through subduction channel. Chlorite geothermometry yielded a wide range of lower temperature from 430 to 188°C, for chlorite present in the porous chromite rims. These results are in agreement with the retrograde overprint under greenchist-facies metamorphism conditions recorded by metapelitic host rocks and minor volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits in the area (300–400°C, ~3–4kbar). We suggest that although initially decoupled, the chromitite-bearing ultramafic rocks and their metasedimentary host undergone a common metamorphic PT pathway of exhumation during the formation and evolution of the subduction-related accretionary complex.The chromitites contain appreciable amounts of the platinum-group elements (up to 347ppb total) and gold (up to 24ppb), present as inclusions of platinum-group minerals (PGM) and alloys as well as native gold. The PGM identified include native osmium, laurite (RuS2), irarsite (IrAsS), osarsite (OsAsS), omeiite (OsAs2), Pt–Fe alloy (possibly isoferroplatinum) and a suite of inadequately identified phases such as PtSb (possibly stumpflite), PdHg (possibly potarite), RhS, Ir–Ni and Ir–Ni–Ru compounds. Only a few grains of osmium and laurite were identified in unaltered cores of chromite and therefore considered as magmatic in origin formed during the high-T event of chomite crystallisation in the upper mantle. The other PGM were located in the porous chromite associated with chlorite or base-metal minerals (BMM) that often fill the pores of this altered chromite or are intergrowth with antigorite in the host serpentinized ultramafic rock. The assemblage of BMM identified in the studied rocks include sulphides [millerite (NiS), polydymite (Ni3S4), violarite (FeNi2S4), galena (PbS), sphalerite (ZnS), chalcocite (CuS)], arsenides [(orcelite (Ni5−xAs2) and maucherite (Ni11As8)], the sulpharsenide gersdorfitte (NiAsS), and native bismuth. The irregular shape of several PGM grains observed in porous chromite suggest disequilibrium, whereas others exhibit perfectly developed crystal faces with the associated secondary silicate or base-metal mineral suggesting neoformation of PGMs in situ from metamorphic fluids. We suggest that the origin of these PGM inclusions is magmatic, but some grains were reworked in situ when metalloid (i.e., As, Sb, Pb, Zn and Hg)-rich fluids released from metasediments penetrated the ultramafic rocks through active shear zones, once the ultramafic bodies became tectonically mixed with the host metasedimentary host rocks. During this event, gold sourced from the (meta)sediments was also precipitated within chromitites and serpentinites.

Interpretation of high resolution aeromagnetic data over southern Benue Trough, southeastern Nigeria

High resolution airborne magnetic data of parts of the southern Benue Trough were digitally processed and analyzed in order to estimate the depth of magnetic sources and to map the distribution and orientation of subsurface structural features. Enhancement techniques applied include, reduction to pole/equator (RTP/RTE), first and second vertical derivatives, horizontal gradients and analytic signal. Results from these procedures show that at least 40% of the sedimentary basin contain shallow (<200 m) magmatic bodies, which in most cases are intermediate to mafic intrusive and hyperbysal rocks, and may occur as sills, dikes or batholiths. Magnetic lineaments with a predominant NE–SW trend appear to be more densely distributed around the basement rocks of the Oban Hills and metamorphosed rocks around the Workum Hills. 3D standard Euler deconvolution and Source Parameter Imaging (SPI TM) techniques were employed for depth estimation. Results from the two methods show similar depth estimates. The maximum depth to basement values for 3D Euler and SPI are 4.40 and 4.85 km with mean depths of 0.42 and 0.37 km, respectively. Results of 2D modelling of magnetic profiles drawn perpendicular to major anomalies in the study area reveal the existence of deep seated faults which may have controlled the emplacement of intrusive bodies in the basin. The abundance of intrusive bodies in the study area renders this part of the southern Nigerian sedimentary basins unattractive for petroleum exploration. However, the area possesses high potential for large accumulation of base metal mineralization.

The Tiger Deposit: A Carbonate-Hosted, Magmatic-Hydrothermal Gold Deposit, Central Yukon, Canada

The Tiger gold deposit, located in central Yukon, Canada, has an inferred resource of 8.28 Mt containing 289,400 ounces gold at an average grade of 1.09 g/t and an indicated resource of 7.15 Mt containing 509,000 ounces gold at an average grade of 2.21 g/t. A detailed paragenetic and geochemical study of the carbonate-hosted replacement-style deposit provides constraints on the fluid history and genesis of the gold mineralizing system. The deposit is hosted in Silurian-Devonian unmetamorphosed carbonate rocks of the Mackenzie Platform and occurs 7 km northeast of the Dawson thrust, which broadly marks the northeast boundary of the Selwyn Basin. A nearby Paleocene intrusion, the Rackla pluton, subcrops ~3 km from the Tiger deposit. No other deposits of this kind have been described within the Mackenzie Platform. The Tiger deposit consists of strata-bound replacement-style mineralization adjacent to an interpreted local feeder fault. Mineralization occurs in two distinct assemblages: (1) hydrothermal dolomite, gold-bearing arsenopyrite, and minor pyrite and (2) fractures hosting native gold associated with bismuth, antimony, silver, tungsten, and minor base metals. Carbon, oxygen, and strontium isotope values suggest magmatic water, originating from the Rackla pluton, as the source of mineralizing fluids for the Tiger deposit. Microthermometric data from gold-bearing dolomites, quartz, and sphalerite document the presence of hot, ~350°C aqueous-carbonic fluids for the duration of gold mineralization, overprinted by cooler, ~150°C aqueous meteoric fluids late in the paragenesis during the waning of the mineralizing system. The Tiger deposit is thus interpreted to represent a distal expression of Paleocene magmatic activity hosted in carbonates northeast of the Selwyn Basin, central Yukon.

O, Sr and Nd isotopic constraints on Cenozoic granitoids of Northwestern Anatolia, Turkey: Enrichment by subduction zone fluids

The oxygen and strontium isotope compositions of Cenozoic granitoids cropping out in the İzmir-Ankara-Erzincan suture zone help constrain the petrological evolution of magmatism in northwest Anatolia. The magmatism was mostly widespread between late Eocene (∼37 Ma) and the middle Miocene (∼14–15 Ma), and is represented by volcanic and plutonic rocks of orogenic affinity, of which Ezine, Eğrigöz, Çataldağ and Kozak are the largest Tertiary granitic plutons exposed in northwest Anatolia. They vary from granite to granodiorite, and are subalkaline, belonging to the high-K calc-alkaline I-type granite series. All these characteristics, combined with major, trace element geochemical data as well as mineralogical and textural evidence, reveal that the Oligocene-Miocene granitoids of NW Anatolia are comparable with volcanic arc granites, formed in a transitional oceanic to continental collisional tectonic setting, from a hybrid source, having crustal and mantle components that underwent further interaction with the upper crust. These plutons have initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios of 0.7072–0.7094, and εNd(t) values ranging from −3.48 to −1.20. These characteristics also indicate that a crustal component played an important role in the petrogenesis of NW Anatolian Oligocene-Miocene granitoids. The moderately evolved Ezine, Eğrigöz, Çataldağ and Kozak granitoids, have δ18O values that are consistent with those of normal I-type granites (6–10‰), but the δ18O relationships among minerals of samples collected from the intrusive contacts which are closest to mineralized zones, indicate a major influence of hydrothermal processes under subsolidus conditions. The oxygen isotope systematics of the samples from these plutons result from the activity of high-δ18O fluids (magmatic water), with major involvement of low-δ18O fluids (meteoric water) evident, near the edge zone of these plutons. This is most evident in δ18O quartz-feldspar pairs from these granitoids, which commonly have values characteristic of open-system hydrothermal conditions, and is consistent with the presence of large scale base-metal mineralization around the NW Anatolian granitoids.

Organic Amendment and Plant Growth Improved Aggregation in Cu/Pb‐Zn Tailings

Core Ideas Organic matters rich in functional groups (e.g. amines, carboxylic, and hydroxylic) stimulated the microaggregation of fine silt/silt particles in Cu/Pb‐Zn tailings. Plant growth favored the formation of macroaggregates and large macroaggregates in the silty tailings. Microbial activities and amorphous Fe/Al/Si in the rhizosphere tailings galvanized the stability of aggregates in the tailings. Improving aggregation in base metal mine tailings is an important step in stimulating the formation of technosols for successful phytostabilization. The present study aimed at evaluating the effects of organic amendments and the growth of pioneer plant species on aggregation of Cu/Pb‐Zn tailings under glasshouse conditions. The tailings were amended with sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) residue (SR) and its compost (SC) at 5% (w/w), and were incubated with or without red flinders (Iseilema vaginiflorum Domin) growth in a pot‐culture experiment for 40 d. The organic amendments mainly stimulated tailings microaggregation through organo‐mineral interactions, due to increased aggregate‐associated organic C (OC) contents. The plant colonization in the amended tailings further induced macroaggregation. Organic functional groups involved in the aggregation were identified as amine, carboxylic, and hydroxylic groups in the SR and SC. The SC contained higher levels of these groups than the SR, resulting in its greater effects on microaggregation. The addition of organic matters (OM) and plant colonization increased the contents of microbial biomass and poorly crystalline Fe in the rhizosphere, which were correlated well with the aggregate stability. As a result, both OMs containing functional groups and pioneer plant culture were found to stimulate aggregation and the development of technosols in Cu/Pb‐Zn tailings.

Who's Who in Mineral Names: Ian Robert Bruce (b. 1969)

Ianbruceite, [Zn2(OH)(H2O)(AsO4)](H2O)2, is a hydrated zinc arsenate that forms during the oxidation of base-metal sulfide minerals; it crystallizes with monoclinic symmetry. The type locality is t...

Tungsten, barium and base metal mineralization in a layer of amphibolite in Mesoarchaean Ghattihosahalli belt, western Dharwar craton, Karnataka, India

Scheelite together with barytes and base metals is found in a layer of para-amphibolite within the Mesoarchaean Ghattihosahalli schist belt in western Dharwar craton. Scheelite occurs as disseminated grains within the amphibolite layer which occurs at the interface between >3.34 Ga old sequence of ultramafic komatiite-komatiitic basalt and an overlying sequence of interbedded fuchsite quartzite, barytes, cherty quartzite and kyanite-sillimanite-quartz-sericite schist. This lithological assemblage is intruded by and co-folded with sheets of gneisses and granites of >3.0 Ga age (Peninsular gneiss). The source material of the mineralized amphibolite is probably derived from weathering of the underlying komatiitic basalt. The mineralization comprising of scheelite, barytes and basemetals in the amphibolite may have been formed by sea floor hydrothermal activity. The mineralized amphibolite is comparable in its geological setting and mineralization features to ∼3.8 Ga old Isua supracrustal belt of West Greenland. This new finding could be viewed as one of the oldest instances of Proto SEDEX-style base metal mineralization associated with barite deposits in the Indian shield.

Characterization of Galena and Vein Paragenesis in the Penjom Gold Mine, Malaysia: Trace Elements, Lead Isotope Study and Relationship to Gold Mineralization Episodes

AbstractThe Penjom Gold Mine is located 30 km from the Bentong‐Raub Suture at the western boundary of the Central Belt in Peninsular Malaysia. Gold mineralization hosted within the vein system is associated with pyrite, arsenopyrite, and minor base metals including galena. Trace element and lead isotope analysis was undertaken on nine samples that represent two stages of galena formed during two tectonic events. Both the Pb isotopes and the trace elements show that the first stage galena within the mineralized areas at the footwall has different geochemical characteristics compared with galena in non mineralized areas in the hanging wall, suggesting that galena crystallized from two different ore fluids and probably at two different times. Higher Te, Se and Bi in the galena from the mineralized area may indicate hydrothermal fluids that migrate through the structural conduit and leached out the metal along the pathway that consist of dominant carbonaceous unit. The Pb isotopic ratio composition are transitional between the bulk crustal growth and an upper crustal growth curve, indicating that derivation was from arc rocks associated with continental crust or a crustal source that includes arc volcanic and old continental sedimentary rocks.

Metallogenetic systems associated with granitoid magmatism in the Amazonian Craton: An overview of the present level of understanding and exploration significance

The Amazonian Craton hosts world-class metallogenic provinces with a wide range of styles of primary precious, rare, base metal, and placer deposits. This paper provides a synthesis of the geological database with regard to granitoid magmatic suites, spatio temporal distribution, tectonic settings, and the nature of selected mineral deposits. The Archean Carajás Mineral Province comprises greenstone belts (3.04–2.97 Ga), metavolcanic-sedimentary units (2.76–2.74 Ga), granitoids (3.07–2.84 Ga) formed in a magmatic arc and syn-collisional setting, post-orogenic A2-type granites as well as gabbros (ca. 2.74 Ga), and anorogenic granites (1.88 Ga). Archean iron oxide-Cu-Au (IOCG) deposits were synchronous or later than bimodal magmatism (2.74–2.70 Ga). Paleoproterozoic IOCG deposits, emplaced at shallow-crustal levels, are enriched with Nb–Y–Sn–Be–U. The latter, as well as Sn–W and Au-EGP deposits are coeval with ca. 1.88 Ga A2-type granites. The Tapajós Mineral Province includes a low-grade meta-volcano-sedimentary sequence (2.01 Ga), tonalites to granites (2.0–1.87 Ga), two calc-alkaline volcanic sequences (2.0–1.95 Ga to 1.89–1.87 Ga) and A-type rhyolites and granites (1.88 Ga). The calc-alkaline volcanic rocks host epithermal Au and base metal mineralization, whereas Cu–Au and Cu–Mo ± Au porphyry-type mineralization is associated with sub-volcanic felsic rocks, formed in two continental magmatic arcs related to an accretionary event, resulting from an Andean-type northwards subduction. The Alta Floresta Gold Province consists of Paleoproterozoic plutono-volcanic sequences (1.98–1.75 Ga), generated in ocean–ocean orogenies. Disseminated and vein-type Au ± Cu and Au + base metal deposits are hosted by calc-alkaline I-type granitic intrusions (1.98 Ga, 1.90 Ga, and 1.87 Ga) and quartz-feldspar porphyries (ca. 1.77 Ga). Timing of the gold deposits has been constrained between 1.78 Ga and 1.77 Ga and linked to post-collisional Juruena arc felsic magmatism (e.g., Colíder and Teles Pires suites). The Transamazonas Province corresponds to a N–S-trending orogenic belt, consolidated during the Transamazonian cycle (2.26–1.95 Ga), comprising the Lourenço, Amapá, Carecuru, Bacajá, and Santana do Araguaia tectonic domains. They show a protracted tectonic evolution, and are host to the pre-, syn-, and post-orogenic to anorogenic granitic magmatism. Gold mineralization associated with magmatic events is still unclear. Greisen and pegmatite Sn–Nb–Ta deposits are related to 1.84 to 1.75 Ga late-orogenic to anorogenic A-type granites. The Pitinga Tin Province includes the Madeira Sn–Nb–Ta–F deposit, Sn-greisens and Sn-episyenites. These are associated with A-type granites of the Madeira Suite (1.84–1.82 Ga), which occur within a cauldron complex (Iricoumé Group). The A-type magmatism evolved from a post-collisional extension, towards a within-plate setting. The hydrothermal processes (400 °C–100 °C) resulted in albitization and formation of disseminated cryolite, pyrochlore columbitization, and formation of a massive cryolite deposit in the core of the Madeira deposit. The Rondônia Tin Province hosts rare-metal (Ta, Nb, Be) and Sn–W mineralization, which is associated with the São Lourenço-Caripunas (1.31–1.30 Ga), related to the post-collisional stage of the Rondônia San Ignácio Province (1.56–1.30 Ga), and to the Santa Clara (1.08–1.07 Ga) and Younger Granites of Rondônia (0.99–0.97 Ga) A-type granites. The latter are linked to the evolution of the Sunsás-Aguapeí Province (1.20–0.95 Ga). Rare-metal polymetallic deposits are associated with late stage peraluminous granites, mainly as greisen, quartz vein, and pegmatite types.

Proximal and remote spectroscopic characterisation of regolith in the Albany–Fraser Orogen (Western Australia)

Vast parts of the Australian continent are prospective for precious and base metal mineralisation, but exploration is hindered by extensive cover of often deeply reaching regolith. New operational exploration methods are required that can help to characterise the cover and provide information about bedrock signatures. This paper shows how mineral mapping information from a combination of satellite multispectral Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) imagery and drill core hyperspectral profiling data (HyLogging™) can be used to unravel the regolith stratigraphy and to describe regional variations of regolith landforms, delivering important information for mineral exploration.The case study is located in the Neale tenements in the northeastern Albany–Fraser Orogen (Western Australia), which is prospective for Tropicana-style gold mineralisation. By interpretation of indicator minerals from hyperspectral drill hole logging data the regolith stratigraphy atop a metamorphic basement, comprising saprock, ferrugineous saprolite, kaolinitic saprolite, silcrete and transported cover, is recorded in cm-detail. Important mineralogical parameters extracted from the hyperspectral subsurface data and validated by XRD and FTIR, are 1) the abundance and type of iron oxides, 2) the abundance and crystallinity of kaolinite, 3) the abundance and composition of primary minerals, such as white mica, and 4) the abundance of quartz.The HyLogging™ data served as ground control points for mineral mapping information provided by CSIRO's ASTER Geoscience Products, which are a collection of mineral maps that highlight variations in the abundance, type or chemistry of selected mineral groups. Key ASTER Geoscience Products for regolith characterisation were the Ferric Oxide and AlOH abundance and composition images. The comparison of the surface with the subsurface data suggests three major different regolith landforms, including erosional, depositional and relict areas, which were used to generate a map showing transported versus relict and erosional areas. Erosional domains were mapped out in great detail, providing important information for exploration in saprolite dominated areas. Furthermore, source areas of transported material could be identified, which may help to understand the distribution of geochemical signatures collected during, for example, geochemical soil sampling projects.