Base Course Research Articles

PLANNING OF SERVICE ROAD THICK PAVEMENT FROM THE NEW TERMINAL TO THE CARGO TERMINAL AT H.HASAN AROEBOSMAN AIRPORT ENDE

H.Hasan Aroeboesman Ende Airport Class II is managed by the Ministry of Transportation which is located in Ende district, East Nusa Tenggara province. H.Hasan Aroeboesman Ende Airport has a runway dimension of 1650mx30m with the largest operating aircraft, namely ATR 72-600. At this time H.Hasan Aroeboesman Ende Airport does not yet have a Service Road that connects the new terminal with the old terminal which is now being converted into a terminal cargo. additional supporting facilities in the form of a Service Road using flexible pavement which functions as an operational road for the Ground Support Equipment team in order to improve the security and safety aspects of flight operations which are urgently needed at H. Hasan Aroeboesman Ende Airport. This Service Road planning study uses the component analysis method which refers to the calculations of SNI-1731-1989-F. to determine the width of the Service Road according to the needs to be planned. Then determine the thickness of the pavement design and the strength of the pavement required at the time of planning. And determine the budget plan that will be needed in the Service Road planning process at H. Hasan Aroeboesman Ende airport. The unit price of work refers to SNI and PM 78 of 2014. For the results of the analysis and calculations that have been carried out, the length of the inspection road is 150 m with a width of 4 meters, the thickness of the individual inspection road pavement is 45 cm with a surface course layer thickness of 5 cm, a base course of 20 cm, and a subbase course of 20 cm, and the total price for planning the construction of the inspection road is 390,1 million rupiah.

Study on the properties of an excess-sulphate phosphogypsum slag cement stabilized base-course mixture containing phosphogypsum-based artificial aggregate

Phosphogypsum (PG) was used to produce an excess-sulfate phosphogypsum slag cement (ESPSC) and artificial aggregates and then co-utilized for road base mixtures to enhance their recycling efficiency. Their hydration process, strength development, volume stability, compatibility, etc., were investigated. The experimental results showed that the wet grinding process resulted in improved strength of the ESPSC mortar with finer ettringite hydrates. The base-course mixture prepared with ESPSC and artificial aggregate exhibited better volume and mechanical properties than that prepared with cement and artificial aggregate. In addition, it showed a narrower interfacial transition zone than that prepared with natural aggregate and ESPSC. The base-course mixture made of ESPSC and artificial aggregate containing 40 wt% PG showed a compressive strength higher than 3 MPa at 7 days, which met the highway base course specifications. This combination can significantly reduce material cost and improve the utilization of PG.

Characterization of Recycled Aggregates in Existing Pavement Base Layers

ABSTRACT The use of recycled pavement materials in transportation infrastructure projects has contributed positively to maintaining a sustainable flow of construction materials and sources. Geotechnical properties of recycled pavement materials play a major role in the suitability of such materials for use in civil infrastructure. This study aimed at evaluating the properties of recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) and reclaimed asphalt pavements (RAP) used as base layer materials in existing hot mix asphalt pavements (with service life of more than 8 years) and comparing them with virgin crushed aggregate (CA) base materials of similar service life. Coring of flexible pavement surface layers at 18 pavement sites was performed to expose the base course layer materials for sampling and testing. Then, the dynamic cone penetrometer (DCP) test was conducted in which the cone penetrated through base layers to the subgrade when possible. Thereafter, base materials were retrieved from the pavement sites for laboratory testing and evaluation. Laboratory tests consisted of particle size analysis, specific gravity and absorption, and Micro-Deval abrasion. Analysis of the particle size distribution showed the presence of high sand size fractions in both RCA and RAP base materials compared with virgin CA base materials. This indicated the recycled materials were crushed/milled to smaller size fractions or degraded under freeze-thaw cycles and traffic loads during the pavement’s service life, or both. The RCA base materials exhibited the highest absorption and mass loss in the Micro-Deval test. The DCP test results were used to predict California bearing ratio (CBR) and resilient modulus (Mr) of base materials. The predicted CBR and resilient modulus of the recycled base materials showed that RCA, RAP, and CA all had comparable strength and modulus values that were high. The investigated recycled RCA and RAP aggregates possessed properties that are comparable with the properties of the virgin CA.

Investigation of Moisture Sensitivity and Cracking Resistance of Granular Base Course Comprised of Tailing Solvent Recovery Unit Materials and Bitumen Froth Derived from Alberta Oil Sands

Investigation of Moisture Sensitivity and Cracking Resistance of Granular Base Course Comprised of Tailing Solvent Recovery Unit Materials and Bitumen Froth Derived from Alberta Oil Sands

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NEW MATERIAL GEOPOLYMER BINDER COURSE FLY WASTE AND BOTTOM ASH ASH

Selection of concrete specifications is something that must be done according to needs. The use of concrete as a building material is efficiency and effectiveness in terms of processing and supply. The increase in fly ash and bottom ash waste will affect new innovations for new materials in construction. The purpose of this study was to determine the characteristics of the new material geopolymer binder course fly waste and bottom ash whether it complies with standards and is suitable for use as a construction material or for making roads. This research was carried out experimentally in the laboratory to check whether the characteristics of the material used met the standards or not. The results obtained were that the best mixture for the new material was between (FA+BA) with a compressive strength of 5.15 MPa and (FA+PS) with a compressive strength of 25.6 MPa at 28 days old with a mixture composition of 1 : 1.5. As for the mixed wear value (FA+BA) has a wear value of 76% while (FA+PS) has 39% wear. The new material resulting from the wear level can be used as a base course material.

Evaluation of asphaltenes a potential alternative for cement in stabilized base courses using asphalt emulsion

Stabilization of pavement base material using asphalt emulsion has been widely used to improve pavement performance. This technology produces a high-quality base course material with decreased energy consumption, carbon footprint, and raw material usage. Cement has been used as a common additive to improve these mixes strength and moisture resistance. However, some drawbacks are also associated with cement, such as negative environmental impacts, high costs, and low-temperature deficiencies. Asphaltenes is a by-product of oil-sand bitumen with little commercial value in current practice. To investigate the impact of asphaltenes on improving the rheological properties of asphalt binder, a series of binder characteristics tests using a dynamic shear rheometer, breaking time and microscopic evaluation is conducted on modified asphalt emulsion with asphaltenes. Asphaltenes is then added to asphalt emulsion-stabilized granular material, to be compared with mixtures prepared with cement. Two asphaltenes and cement-modified mixes are prepared and compared to unmodified mixtures. All mixes are tested for permanent deformation and moisture sensitivity using a Hamburg wheel tracker and flow number test, while the low-temperature properties are evaluated using indirect tensile strength tests. Dynamic modulus is also evaluated to analyze the viscoelastic behavior of the mixes. The results of this study reveal a considerable increase in the rutting resistance of asphalt mixes by adding 1% of both additives (by total weight of mix), and asphaltenes-modification shows less adverse impacts at intermediate and low temperatures than cement-modification.

Digitalization of The Construction Industry with BIM and 3D Machine Control Integration for Construction Performance Improvement.

The Government of the Republic of Indonesia through Presidential Regulation Number 100 of 2014 and Presidential Regulation Number 117 of 2015 aims the construction of the 2770 km Trans Sumatra Toll Road from Bakauheni to Banda Aceh to be fully constructed by 2024. There are two key stages in the project phase, i.e planning and construction stages. The planning stage is carried out using the Building Information Model (BIM), while the construction phase integrates BIM with 3D-Machine-Control. This study is conducted in Trans Sumatera Pekanbaru - Bangkinang’s Toll Road with 40 kilometers long as a study case. The data acquisition methodology is conducted using qualitative and quantitative methods throughout the field’s experiments. This study conducted the examination of the LiDAR UAV digital survey’s accuracy, the BIM implementation on Level of Development (LOD) 200, 300, and 400, verification of the usage of Motor Grader with 3D-Machine-Control efficiency in elevation cutting works, and the application of Vibro Compactor with 3D-Machine-Control for improving the accuracy of soil compaction on the subgrade and base course. The results showed that the topographic data from UAV LiDAR are accurate within LE90 accuracy with 0.176 cm. The optimalization of 3D-Machine-Control could carry out the earthworks as similar as design also can be used as quality and quantity control. The time efficiency which obtained from implementing Motor Grader with 3D-Machine-Control for elevation cutting application is 47%.

Runway Pavement Design using the Federal Aviation Administration Method

Dhoho International Airport is a new airport located in Kediri Regency, East Java Province, which is built on an area of + 454.5 hectares with a runway length of 3300 m and a width of 45 m. According to its hierarchy, Dhoho Kediri International Airport is a feeder airport (spoke). The B777-300ER aircraft is planned to operate at Dhoho International Airport with a plan life of 10 years which has a subgrade CBR value of 6%. The purpose of this research is to determine the thickness of flexible pavement on the runway of Dhoho Kediri International Airport using the FAA method. In determining the thickness of the runway flexible pavement using the FAA method is influenced by the number of annual departures of aircraft, the MTOW value of aircraft and the CBR value of the subgrade. To determine the annual number of aircraft departures at the new airport, it is necessary to forecast the number of passengers by considering the number of passengers at the nearest airport. Based on data analysis in this study, the total thickness of runway flexible pavement at Dhoho International Airport using FAA method is 102 cm with details of surface thickness of 13 cm, base course thickness of 56 cm, and subbase thickness of 33 cm.

Analisis Perencanaan Struktur Perkerasan Apron Pada Bandar Udara Internasional Sultan Hasanuddin Menggunakan Metode FAA

This study aims to determine and analyze thickness of apron pavement structure with Boeing 747-400 aircraft type at Sultan Hasanuddin International Airport using the Federal Aviation Adminstration method. This research is located at Sultan Hasanuddin International Airport Makassar. Data required includes secondary data in the form of aircraft movement traffic data from 2014 to 2018, apron layout and subgrade test California Bearing Ratio data as well as other data. The results of the planning analysis obtained the thickness of apron pavement structure with Boeing 747-400 aircraft type at Sultan Hasanuddin International Airport using the Federal Aviation Adminstration method, the thickness of subbase was 20 cm, base course (stabilized) was 15 cm and surface f’c 33,2 MPa was 41 cm

Effectiveness of Hybrid Geosynthetic Systems in Controlling Differential Heave in Flexible Pavements over Expansive Soils

The challenge of maintaining ride quality and serviceability in flexible pavements built over expansive soil deposits remains a critical concern for transportation agencies. These expansive subgrades exhibit swell-shrink behavior in response to moisture fluctuations, leading to differential heaving and subsequent costly maintenance. This paper explores the effectiveness of a Hybrid Geosynthetic Reinforcement System (HGRS)—a composite of geocell and geogrid—as a targeted mitigation strategy for differential heaving induced by expansive soils. A large-scale box test was designed to simulate a flexible pavement section, consisting solely of a base course layer and the underlying expansive subgrade. Four test conditions were investigated: an unreinforced control, a geocell-reinforced section, a geogrid-reinforced section, and an HGRS-reinforced section. Vertical displacements on the surface of the base course layer were longitudinally monitored and compared against the control. The results reveal that the use of geosynthetic reinforcements, and HGRS in particular, significantly mitigates both maximum surficial heave and differential swelling. Among the systems tested, flexible pavements featuring HGRS demonstrated the most effective performance in alleviating the challenges posed by expansive soil deposits.

Modeling geogrid-stabilized aggregate base courses considering local stiffness enhancement

Lateral restraint is the primary stabilization mechanism associated with the interlocking of aggregate particles in the geogrid apertures. This paper presents findings from a laboratory study which quantifies the local stiffness enhancement of aggregates through micromechanical interlocking provided by two different types of geogrids. These findings are applied to model the resilient response characteristics of geogrid-stabilized base course composite systems. Using three pairs of bender elements as shear wave transducers, horizontal stiffness profiles were determined above mid-heights of aggregate specimens. For two types of geogrids with square- and triangular-shaped apertures, the shear modulus profiles decreased moving away from the geogrid location. Based on a relationship for aggregates, resilient modulus was estimated from the shear modulus. Considering the variations in resilient moduli with distance from the geogrid location, the local stiffness enhancements provided by the two geogrid types were assigned to modulus profiles of a geogrid-stabilized aggregate base course in flexible pavement mechanistic analysis and modeling. The modeling results demonstrate the effect of geogrid base stabilization on the computed pavement resilient responses for both geogrid types. The sublayering approach which properly considers modeling of the geogrid influence zone could be effectively used in mechanistic analysis of a geogrid-stabilized pavement system.

Calculation Method for Traffic Load-Induced Permanent Deformation in Soils under Flexible Pavements

Rutting is one of the most common types of distress in flexible pavement structures. There are two fundamental methods of designing pavement structures: conventional empirical methods and analytical approaches. Many analytical and empirical design procedures assume that rutting is mostly of asphalt origin and can be reduced by limiting the vertical deformation or stress at the top of the subgrade, but they do not quantify the rutting depth itself. Mechanistic–empirical models to predict the permanent deformations of unbound pavement layers have been well investigated and are rather common in North America; however, they are not widely utilized in the rest of the world. To date, there is no generally accepted, widely recognized, and documented procedure for calculating permanent deformations and thus for determining the rutting depth in flexible pavement courses originating from the unbound granular layers. This paper presents a layered calculation method with which the deformation of soil layers (base, subbase, and subgrade courses) under flexible pavements due to repeated traffic load can be determined. In the first step, the cyclic strain amplitude is calculated using a nonlinear material model that is based on particle size distribution parameters (d50 and CU) and dependent on the mean normal stress, relative density, and actual strain level. In the second step, the HCA (High Cycle Accumulation) model is used to calculate the residual settlement of each sublayer as a function of the number of cycles. It is shown that the developed model is suitable for describing different types of subgrades and pavement cross-sections. It is also demonstrated with finite element calculations that the developed model describes both the elastic and plastic strains sufficiently accurately. The developed model can predict the settlement and rutting of pavement structures with sufficient accuracy based on easily available particle size distribution parameters without the need for complex laboratory and finite element tests.

Effects of sodium chloride crystallization on shear characteristics of road base aggregates under unsaturated state

The precipitation and intrusion of sodium chloride into pavement structures is inevitable in coastal regions, which can affect the mechanical properties of the road base courses. To investigate this problem, samples with sodium chloride solution were cured in a thermostatic chamber until they reached the specified states of sodium chloride precipitation within the pores. A critical crystallization degree ( ωc) was discovered by computerized tomography scan, corresponding to the start of the formation of porous salt crust cementing the soil particles. A series of unsaturated large-scale triaxial shear tests were then conducted under various states of salt crystallization. The results showed that in the early stages of crystallization (i.e., ω < ωc), the peak stress and internal friction angle decreased with ω because of the coating and lubricating effects of salt powders, while the apparent cohesion remained constant. When ω > ωc, owing to the increasing adsorption and cementation effects of the salt crust, rapid growth was observed for the peak stress, internal friction angle, and apparent cohesion of the road base aggregates. Considering the influence of salt precipitation, a modified shear strength criterion that can predict the shear strength of the salinized road base aggregates was formulated.

Stiffness modulus prediction against basic physical and mechanical characteristics of recycled base course with foamed bitumen and emulsified bitumen

Stiffness modulus prediction against basic physical and mechanical characteristics of recycled base course with foamed bitumen and emulsified bitumen

Recycle of discarded masks in civil Engineering: Current status and future opportunities with silane coupling agent modified discarded masks

In recent years, with the heightened of public health protection awareness, masks have become an important protective equipment. The accumulation of discarded masks (DM) poses an impact to environment and resource. Recycling DM has become a prime focus of sustainable development research. This investigation introduces a review of the recycling of DM in civil engineering and presents a novel modification of discarded mask fibers (DMF) to enhance the mechanical property of cement paste. In the review section: (1) The masks are divided into three classes by integrating relevant standards and considering mask protective characteristics; (2) Various disposal techniques for recycling DM are categorized in shredding, hot processing, paper shredding, and crushing; (3) The impact of incorporating DMF in concrete, mortar, asphalt, road subbases and base courses are discussed. The enhancement of applying DMF into composite materials varies depending on the specific application. In the experimental research section, the silane coupling agent (SCA) is introduced as a modification to improve the weak bonding between DMF and composite materials. The SCA-modified polypropylene (PP) fibers were conducted as a control group. The results indicate that the compressive strength of cement paste with both SCA-modified DMF and PP fibers increased by 12.29 % and 26.10 %, respectively. Finally, several future opportunities in recycling of DM in Civil Engineering were drawn.

Evaluation of Millability and Recyclability of Asphalt with Paving Interlayers

Abstract Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) has been widely incorporated into roadway base and surface courses, as they provide economic and environmental benefits that lead to sustainable construction practices. However, because of the increasing use of paving interlayers (e.g., geotextiles, geogrids, and geocomposites) during roadway rehabilitation, the likelihood of milling projects involving asphalt layers with paving interlayers (referred to as GRAP) has significantly increased. Consequently, the assessment of potential GRAP reuse in geotechnical and pavement applications becomes essential. This research study aims at evaluating the millability and recyclability of asphalt layers with paving interlayers. Specifically, sections with and without paving interlayers were first milled to evaluate the millability of asphalt layers with paving interlayers. Subsequently, the recyclability of GRAP for the base and surface course of pavements was assessed by quantifying the geotechnical characteristics of millings collected from asphalt layers with paving interlayers, referred herein as geosynthetic RAP or GRAP, and those without paving interlayers (RAP). The evaluation of RAP and GRAP materials for road base suitability included blending them with virgin aggregates and investigating these blends via determination of particle size distribution, binder content, compaction characteristics, abrasion resistance, hydraulic conductivity, and resilient modulus. The evaluation of RAP and GRAP materials for surface course suitability involved preparing asphalt mixtures that incorporated RAP and GRAP and quantifying their particle size distribution, indirect tensile strength, and moisture susceptibility. Comparison of the results obtained from five different base course blends and five different asphalt mixtures demonstrated that the base course blends and asphalt mixtures with GRAP exhibited properties similar to those with RAP. Also, the results of this investigation indicate that asphalt mixtures (surface course) and granular base courses can incorporate up to 30 % and 50 % GRAP, respectively, thus leading to sustainable roadway construction practices.

Cement-stabilized large-sized steel slag base course based on vibration compaction method: Mechanical properties, shrinkage properties, and numerical simulation

The excellent mechanical properties and wear resistance of steel slag contribute to the properties of road engineering materials. The hot-stuffing aged slag was chosen as raw material for this study. Cement-stabilized large-sized steel slag (CSLS) mixtures containing different structural types, cement contents, and curing time were prepared by vibration compaction method. Afterward, the properties of CSLS mixtures such as unconfined compressive strength (UCS), indirect tensile strength (ITS), compressive resilience modulus (CRM), dry shrinkage and temperature shrinkage were investigated. Ultimately, the Mises stress and deflection value of CSLS road structure with different construction methods and construction seasons were explored by ABAQUS.

Investigation of the performance of cement-stabilized magnesium slag as a road base material

The harmless, resource-saving, and large-scale utilization of magnesium slag (MS) from industrial waste has become an important topic for road research. The use of MS as a substitute for aggregate is a practical and efficient way to dispose of it. However, there is a lack of systematic research on how to standardize its use in road construction. The objective of this study was to investigate the applicability and feasibility of using MS for cement stabilized base course materials. The influence of different cement dosages, curing age, and gradation on the strength, stiffness and stability of cement-stabilized magnesium slag mixture (CMSM) was investigated, and the actual road performance of CMSM was analyzed by paving a test road. The results showed that the mechanical properties of the CMSM met the requirements for road base courses under medium-to-light traffic when the cement dosage was above 5%. The unconfined compressive strength loss rate of the CMSM was less than 13% for an immersion time of 1 to 7 days, and after 5 freeze–thaw cycles, the frost resistance coefficient of the CMSM was more than 85%. The performance of the CMSM was most affected by cement dosage and curing age, closely followed by mixture grading type. MS can enhance the development of the pozzolanic reaction, resulting in improved strength and compactness of CMSM. Overall, CMSM exhibited exceptional road performance and could reduce aggregate costs by 25% to 35%. The use of MS as an aggregate for road base courses offers a sustainable solution that not only maximizes the use of solid wastes, but also avoids the potential safety hazards and environmental pollution caused by improper disposal and stockpiling of MS.

A novel approach for the mechanical response of cement concrete pavement structure considering the interlaminar interface shear slip effect

The traditional theoretical analysis method has many problems such as cumbersome calculation and low efficiency, and there is a relative lack of research on the simplified mechanical model in the field of road engineering. To further improve and enrich the existing theoretical analysis of pavement structures, and to realize the rapid analysis of the mechanical behavior of cement concrete pavement structure (CCPS), based on the state-space method, a new approach is proposed to analyze the mechanical response of the CCPS, taking the interlaminar interface shear slip effect into account. The CCPS is considered as a two-layered Euler beam. A state equation is established to investigate the static responses of the CCPS with explicit consideration of the interlaminar interface shear slip effect under the action of an arbitrary vertical load and is solved by matrix theory. Subsequently, the present solution is validated by the literature published and the numerical simulation. In addition, the effects of the interlayer shear stiffness, thickness of the base course, stiffness of Winkler foundation springs, and bending stiffness on the deformations of the CCPS, and the influence of external loads on the interlayer distributing shear forces are revealed. It is indicated that the interlaminar interface shear slip effect exhibits a significant influence on the deflection and bending deformation of the CCPS. Moreover, the proposed solution can not only be employed conveniently for the consideration of any interlaminar contact conditions and vertical load distributions but also be reduced to obtain the responses of a single-layer mechanical model.

Full-Scale Evaluation of Electrically Conductive Asphalt Pavements for Deicing Applications

Electrically heated pavements are an emerging technology for deicing applications in cold regions. Such pavements usually contain a conductive layer (asphalt or concrete) and electrodes to transmit electricity through the pavement, thus heating it. The goal of this study was to evaluate the heating ability of electrically conductive pavement structures under cold weather conditions. To achieve this goal, three full-scale pavement strips were constructed at Rowan University. Test strip I was a conventional pavement strip without any heating elements, whereas test strips II and III had conductive asphalt layer sandwiched between base and asphalt surface courses. The conductive layer in test strip II consisted of a mixture of asphalt binder and conductive fibers, whereas test strip III contained a modified high-performance thin overlay (HPTO) mixture with graphite and carbon fibers. To provide electric potential across the conductive layers, steel electrodes with different spacings (6 in. and 12 in.) were installed at the bottom of the conductive layers of test strips II and III, and connected to a 24V AC power source. Electrical data showed that test strip II had a power consumption of 19.75 W/ft2, which was nearly four times higher than test strip III. Thermal data showed that the surface temperature of test strip III with 6 in. electrode spacing increased above freezing point with nearly 50% less power consumption than test strip II. Further, electrodes with 6 in. spacing resulted in the highest increase of pavement surface temperature, which was 3°F higher than electrodes with 12 in. spacing.