Base-catalyzed Isomerization Research Articles

Biomimetic Nitration of Conjugated Linoleic Acid: Formation and Characterization of Naturally Occurring Conjugated Nitrodienes

Nitro-conjugated linoleic acids (NO2-cLA), endogenous nitrodiene lipids which act as inflammatory signaling mediators, were isolated and single isomers purified from the biomimetic acidic nitration products of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA). Structures were elucidated by means of detailed NMR and HPLC-MS/MS spectroscopic analysis and the relative double bond configurations assigned. Additional synthetic methods produced useful quantities and similar isomeric distributions of these unusual and reactive compounds for biological studies and isotopic standards, and the potential conversion of nitro-linoleic to nitro-conjugated linoleic acids was explored via a facile base-catalyzed isomerization. This represents one of the few descriptions of naturally occurring conjugated nitro dienes (in particular, 1-nitro 1,3-diene), an unusual and highly reactive motif with few biological examples extant.

Kinetic Studies of the Epimerization of Diastereomeric Pyrylium Salts

Chiral pyrylium salts are almost unknown in the literature, and none that are epimerizable have been reported prior to our work. Herein, we report two new epimerizable pyryliums and the kinetics of the diastereomeric equilibration of these and one other example. All of these required a careful analysis of the (1)H NMR spectrum to identify the stereoisomers, particularly for one of them. The temporal evolution of the relative isomeric concentrations was determined through acquisition of progressive NMR spectra. The base-catalyzed isomerization kinetics were successfully modeled as sequential, pseudo-first-order reactions that transition through a long-lived intermediate. These results suggest that the pseudobase intermediate is the operative catalyst when epimerizations are initiated with amines with pK(a) 7.4 or greater. Given the bulky nature of the operative acid (pyrylium) and base (pseudobase), the rate of these epimerizations is sensitive to steric bulk in the pyrylium. Thus, the reaction kinetics slow by a factor of 25 when substituents are placed at the ortho versus para position on the pyrylium cyclohexane ring. This is likely due to the difficulty of pseudobase attack at the sterically crowded pyrylium acidic hydrogen position.

Partial synthesis of serum carotenoids and their metabolites.

Human serum and tissues contain in excess of 12 dietary carotenoids and several metabolites that originate from consumption of fruits and vegetables. Among these are hydroxycarotenoids: (3R,3'R,6'R)-lutein (1), (3R,3'R)-zeaxanthin (2), (3R,6'R)-α-cryptoxanthin (3), and (3R)-β-cryptoxanthin (4). In addition, several dehydration products of 1 have also been identified in human serum, these are: (3R,6'R)-3-hydroxy-3',4'-didehydro-β,γ-carotene (5), (3R,6'R)-3-hydroxy-2',3'-didehydro-β,ε-carotene (6), and (3R)-3-hydroxy-3',4'-didehydro-β,β-carotene (7). Several metabolites of 1 and/or 2, namely, (3R,3'S,6'R)-lutein (3'-epilutein, 8) and (3R,3'S;meso)-zeaxanthin (9) have also been characterized in human serum and ocular tissues. Semi-synthetic processes have been developed that separately transform commercially available 1 into 4 via 7 as well as 1 into 8. While 8 is converted into 2 by base-catalyzed isomerization, 7 is transformed into 2 and its (3R,3'S;meso)-stereoisomer (9) by regioselective hydroboration.

Chemistry of renieramycins. Part 9: Stereocontrolled total synthesis of (±)-renieramycin G

A 25-step stereocontrolled total synthesis of (±)-renieramycin G ( 1g) from readily available 2-hydroxy-3-methyl-4,5-dimethoxybenzaldehyde ( 3) is described. This synthesis features the concise construction of the pentacyclic framework using the stereoselective Pictet–Spengler type cyclization reaction of lactam ( 14) with ethyl diethoxyacetate, followed by the base-catalyzed isomerization of the C-1 stereo center.

Highly diastereoselective synthesis of new heterolignan-like 6,7-methylendioxy-tetrahydroquinolines using the clove bud essential oil as raw material

The diastereoselective synthesis toward novel heterolignan-like 2-aryl-4-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-6,7-methylendioxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinolines using for the first time clove bud essential oil as a renewable material was carried out. The synthetic protocol consisted of the hydrodistillation of dried flower buds, the solid base-catalyzed isomerization of the obtained essential oil enriched with eugenol in order to give isoeugenol and its participation, as a chemical reagent (dienophile) in the BF 3·OEt 2-catalyzed three component Povarov reaction, without previous purification. Final products were obtained as racemic mixtures of new trans-2,4-diaryl- r-3-Me-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinolines in moderate to good yields.

High‐Yielding Synthesis of the Anti‐Influenza Neuraminidase Inhibitor (−)‐Oseltamivir by Two “One‐Pot” Sequences

The efficient asymmetric total synthesis of (-)-oseltamivir, an antiviral reagent, has been accomplished by using two "one-pot" reaction sequences, with excellent overall yield (60 %) and only one required purification by column chromatography. The first one-pot reaction sequence consists of a diphenylprolinol silyl ether mediated asymmetric Michael reaction, a domino Michael reaction/Horner-Wadsworth-Emmons reaction combined with retro-aldol/Horner-Wadsworth-Emmons reaction and retro Michael reactions, a thiol Michael reaction, and a base-catalyzed isomerization. Six reactions can be successfully conducted in the second one-pot reaction sequence; these are deprotection of a tert-butyl ester and its conversion into an acyl chloride then an acyl azide, Curtius rearrangement, amide formation, reduction of a nitro group into an amine, and a retro Michael reaction of a thiol moiety. A column-free synthesis of (-)-oseltamivir has also been established.

Base-Catalyzed Isomerization of 2-Isoxazolines Enables a Two-Step Enantioselective Synthesis of β-Hydroxynitriles from Enals

The asymmetric synthesis of β-hydroxynitriles remains a challenge in organic synthesis. Herein we report a convenient synthesis of β-hydroxynitriles from enantiomerically enriched 3-unsubstituted 2-isoxazolines via a base-catalyzed ring-opening reaction that takes place without loss of enantiopurity. In combination with organocatalytic enantioselective synthesis of 3-unsubstituted 2-isoxazolines, the ring-opening enables a short 2-step synthesis of β-hydroxynitriles from α,β-unsaturated aldehydes in high enantiomeric purity.

ChemInform Abstract: A Novel Synthesis of Furans by Base-Catalyzed Isomerization of Alkynyloxiranes.

Treatment of alkynyloxiranes with KO-t-Bu in t-BuOH causes isomerization to furans. A pathway involving a cumulene alkoxide is proposed

ChemInform Abstract: Spiroketal Synthesis - A Case of Intramolecular Glycoside Bond Formation.

From 4-O-unsubstituted glucose derivatives 1a, b the 4-hydroxymethyl-substituted glucose derivatives 9a, b were obtained via oxidation to the ketone, Wittig reaction with methylenetriphenylphosphorane, borane addition, and subsequent oxidation to yield the diastereomeric galactose-derived compounds 5a, b; the required inversion of configuration at C-4 was accomplished through oxidation to the formyl derivatives, base-catalyzed isomerisation, and then reduction. Transformation of hydroxymethyl derivatives 9a, b into the iodo derivatives 11a, b and reaction with n-butyllithium generated the C-lithiated species 11aA, bA which furnished with O-benzyl-protected gluconolactone 12 the ketose derivatives 13a, b. Treatment with Et2O–BF3 afforded under concomitant 6-O-debenzylation the spiroketals 15a, b. Hydrogenolytic O-debenzylation and subsequent O-acetylation led to compounds 16a and 16b, respectively. The anomeric ketoside configuration was derived from NOE experiments.

ChemInform Abstract: A Convenient Preparation of (E)-3-Penten-2-one.

Abstract A convenient large-scale synthesis of (E)-3-penten-2-one has been described based on the synthesis of the corresponding β,γ-unsaturated ketone and its subsequent base-catalyzed olefin isomerization.

Efficient Syntheses of 5-X-B10H13 Halodecaboranes via the Photochemical (X = I) and/or Base-Catalyzed (X = Cl, Br, I) Isomerization Reactions of 6-X-B10H13

High yield syntheses of the 5-X-B(10)H(13) (5X) halodecaboranes have been achieved through the photochemical (X = I) or base-catalyzed (X = Cl, Br, I) isomerization reactions of their 6-X-B(10)H(13) (6X) isomers. 5I was obtained in 80% isolated yield upon the UV photolysis of 6I. Treatment of 6X (X = Cl, Br, I) with catalytic amounts of triethylamine at 60 degrees C led to the formation of 78:22 (Cl), 82:18 (Br), and 86:14 (I) ratio 5X/6X equilibrium mixtures. The 5X isomers were then separated from these mixtures by selective crystallization (Br and I) or column chromatography (Cl), with the supernatant mixtures in each case then subjected to another round of isomerization/separation to harvest a second crop of 5X. The combined isolated yields of pure products after two cycles were 71% 5-Cl-B(10)H(13), 83% 5-Br-B(10)H(13), and 68% 5-I-B(10)H(13). The previously proposed structures of 5-Br-B(10)H(13) and 5-I-B(10)H(13) were crystallographically confirmed. Deprotonation of 6X and 5X with 1,8-bis(dimethylamino)naphthalene (PS) resulted in the formation of [PSH(+)][6X(-)] and [PSH(+)][5X(-)]. Density functional theory-gauge-independent atomic orbital (DFT/GIAO) calculations and crystallographic determinations of [PSH(+)][6Cl(-)] and [PSH(+)][6Cl(-)] confirmed bridge-deprotonation at a site adjacent to the halogen-substituted borons. NMR studies of the 6-Br-B(10)H(13) isomerization induced by stoichiometric amounts of PS showed that following initial deprotonation to form 6-Br-B(10)H(12)(-), isomerization occurred at 60 degrees C to form an equilibrium mixture of 6-Br-B(10)H(12)(-) and 5-Br-B(10)H(12)(-). DFT calculations also showed that the observed 5-X-B(10)H(13)/6-X-B(10)H(13) equilibrium ratios in the triethylamine-catalyzed reactions were consistent with the energetic differences of the 5-X-B(10)H(12)(-) and 6-X-B(10)H(12)(-) anions. These results strongly support a mechanistic pathway for the base-catalyzed 6X to 5X conversions involving the formation and subsequent isomerizations of the 6X(-) anions. While triethylamine did not catalyze the isomerization reactions of either 6-(C(6)H(13))-B(10)H(13) or 6,9-(C(6)H(13))(2)-B(10)H(12), it catalyzed the isomerization of 6-X-9-(C(6)H(13))-B(10)H(12) to 5-X-9-(C(6)H(13))-B(10)H(12) resulting from halo, but not alkyl rearrangement. Comparisons of the chemical shift values found in the temperature-dependent (11)B NMR spectra of 6Cl(-) and 6F(-) with DFT/GIAO chemical shift calculations indicate the fluxional behavior observed for these anions results from a process involving hydrogen migration around the open face that leads to the averaging of some boron resonances at higher temperatures.

Stereoselective synthesis of enynones via base-catalyzed isomerization of 1,5-disubstituted-2,4-pentadiynyl silyl ethers or their alcohol derivatives

1,5-Disubstituted-2,4-pentadiynyl silyl ethers undergo smooth desilylative isomerization to afford cis-enynones as major products with moderate stereoselectivities in the presence of a catalytic amount of KO(t)Bu or DBU. While the isomerization reactions of their alcohol derivatives catalyzed by KOH, KO(t)Bu or NaH take place efficiently to produce trans-enynones with high stereoselectivities. These reactions provide convenient and practical routes for the synthesis of enynones with a wide range of substitution groups.

Cyanomethylamines and azidomethylamines: new general methods of the synthesis and transformations

Simple and efficient methods have been developed to obtain cyanomethylamines and azidomethylamines using reactions of methoxymethylamines with TMSCN and TMSN 3 , respectively. In the case of dimethylformamide dimethylacetal, only one MeO group was substituted with CN, and an unexpected direction of the subsequent azidation was found. Adducts of azidomethylamines with DMAD were studied, and the base-catalyzed isomerization of symmetric triazoles into non-symmetric ones was revealed.

Salting-out gradients in centrifugal partition chromatography for the isolation of chlorogenic acids from green coffee beans

In addition to sample solubility constraints, the use of polarity gradients in normal-phase centrifugal partition chromatography (CPC) for the purification of complex mixtures is also limited by the instability of biphasic systems as a consequence of dramatic changes in the settling times along the gradient, leading in many cases to column bleeding when working under maximum efficiency conditions. In this paper an electrostriction approach is proposed as a strategy in reversed-phase CPC to fractionate intermediate polarity extracts in a single run by bringing its components into the “sweet spot” in a controlled fashion through a stepwise reduction of salt concentration in the aqueous mobile phase. The salting-out gradient method was successfully tested with the separation of the major chlorogenic acids (CGAs, hydroxycinnamoylquinic acids) present in green coffee beans (5-caffeoylquinic acid (5-CQA), 5-feruloylquinic acid (5-FQA) and 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid (3,5-diCQA)) using ethyl acetate-hexane as the stationary phase and an ionic gradient of LiCl (5.0, 2.5 and 0.1 M) as the mobile phase in one case and (NH 4) 2SO 4/KNO 3 (3.0 and 1.5 M/1.5 M) in another. Regioisomers of each chlorogenic acid obtained by base-catalyzed isomerisation were also separated by CPC using isocratic elution. The best resolution for both FQAs and diCQAs was achieved with a chloroform– n-butanol–0.01 M pH 2.5 phosphate buffer (84:16:100; v/v) system, while CQAs were best isolated using chloroform– n-butanol–0.01 M pH 2.5 phosphate buffer/5.0 M LiCl (82:18:100; v/v).

Sugars, Alkaloids, and Heteroaromatics: Exploring Heterocyclic Chemistry with Alkoxyallenes

As master craftsmen, modern synthetic chemists are challenged to achieve remarkable feats of efficiency and elegance toward molecular targets. The nature of this pursuit necessitates the collection of synthetic repertoires that are tried and true. With methodologies and pathways increasingly scrutinized, the adept chemist must seek out propitious tools to incorporate into the arsenal. With this in mind, this Account highlights the versatility of alkoxyallenes as precursors to valuable heterocyclic building blocks for such efforts as natural product synthesis. Accessed by the etherification of either propargyl alcohols or propargylic halides, alkoxyallenes are obtained after base-catalyzed isomerizations of the propargylic ethers. A host of umpolung synthons are available through this scheme after metalation, generating C(3) nucleophiles synthetically equivalent to vital anionic and zwitterionic synthons. Reactions with a diverse set of heteroatomic electrophiles yield carbohydrates, spiroketals, alkaloids, and heteroaromatics via [3 + 2] or [3 + 3] cyclizations. By employing lithiated alkoxyallenes into transformation routes, the natural product chemist can utilize this methodology as a viable resource in stereoselective synthesis. A survey of our own utilization of alkoxyallenes along synthetic pathways toward natural product targets reveals their suitability for generating advantageous precursors. A set of four stereoisomeric 2,6-dideoxyhexoses were stereoselectively obtained after an initial lithiated alkoxyallene and lactaldehyde cyclization, followed by the oxidative ring opening of the dihydrofurans. Through the addition of a lithiated alkoxyallene to a functionalized benzaldehyde, an essential spiroketal diastereomer was rapidly achieved in a few steps. We greatly benefitted from alkoxyallenes in the construction of complex nitrogen-containing synthetic targets, whether pyrrolidine alkaloids, substituted imidazole derivatives, or functionalized pyridines. A pinnacle example of their utility came from the coupling of alkoxyallenes to nitrones affording 1,2-oxazines, which served as a gateway to an array of novel polyfunctionalized compounds such as aminopolyols, hydroxylated pyrrolidines, or carbohydrate mimetics. Alkoxyallenes have proven themselves to be powerful C(3) building blocks toward complex molecular targets, revealing novel pathways to a variety of desirable highly functionalized heterocycles. In our view, the full extent of their synthetic utility has yet to be truly realized.

Benzylamine-Free, Heavy-Metal-Free Synthesis of CL-20 via Hexa(1-propenyl)hexaazaisowurtzitane

Base-catalyzed isomerization of recently reported hexaallylhexaazaisowurtzitane produced a new derivative, hexa(1-propenyl)hexaazaisowurtzitane (HPIW). Photooxygenation of this intermediate by singlet oxygen oxidized most of the 1-propenyl substituents to formyl substituents. The course of this reaction of singlet oxygen with HPIW involves peroxide intermediates, which may include relatively stable macrocyclic (tetroxocane) derivatives. The resulting nitrolyzable polyformylhexaazaisowurtzitane was found to be a promisingly efficient new precursor to CL-20 (in a single preliminary experiment without any process development). The new intermediate HPIW also underwent direct nitrolysis to form CL-20, though not as efficiently as its photooxygenation product did.

Regio- and stereoselective synthesis of constrained enantiomeric β-amino acid derivatives

Chlorosulfonyl isocyanate addition to (−)- and (+)-apopinene furnished monoterpene-fused β-lactams in highly regio- and stereospecific reactions. β-Lactams 5 and 13 exhibited reactivities similar to those of the cycloalkane-fused analogs and were easily converted to the β-amino acid and its protected derivatives. The base-catalyzed isomerization of the cis-amino ester afforded the corresponding trans-amino acid enantiomers in excellent yields. The complete isomerization is explained by the stability difference, which was estimated by ab initio calculations between the cis- and trans-diastereomers.

Regio- and stereoselective synthesis of the enantiomers of monoterpene-based β-amino acid derivatives

The regio- and stereospecific addition of chlorosulfonyl isocyanate to cis-δ-pinene enantiomers has furnished monoterpene-fused β-lactams. The observed regioselectivity can be explained by ab initio DFT modeling of transition state structures. In contrast with the less reactive α-pinane-fused β-lactam 4, the resulting β-lactams 5 and 13 containing an amino group connected to a secondary carbon possess similar reactivity to the cycloalkane-fused analogues and can be easily converted to the β-amino acid and its protected derivatives. The base-catalyzed isomerization of the cis-amino ester afforded the corresponding trans-amino ester in moderate yield.

The roles of thiol-derived radicals in the use of 2′,7′-dichlorodihydrofluorescein as a probe for oxidative stress

2′,7′-Dichlorodihydrofluorescein (DCFH2) is one of the most widely used probes for detecting intracellular oxidative stress, but requires a catalyst to be oxidized by hydrogen peroxide or superoxide and reacts nonspecifically with oxidizing radicals. Thiyl radicals are produced when many radicals are “repaired” by thiols, but are oxidizing agents and thus potentially capable of oxidizing DCFH2. The aim of this study was to investigate the reactivity of thiol-derived radicals toward DCFH2 and its oxidized, fluorescent form 2′,7′-dichlorofluorescein (DCF). Thiyl radicals derived from oxidation of glutathione (GSH) or cysteine (CysSH) oxidized DCFH2 with rate constants at pH 7.4 of ∼4 or ∼2×107 M−1 s−1, respectively. Both the rates of oxidation and the yields of DCF were pH-dependent. Glutathione-derived radicals interacted with DCF, resulting in the formation of DCFH absorbing at 390 nm and loss of fluorescence; in contrast, cysteine-derived radicals did not cause any depletion of DCF fluorescence. We postulate that the observed apparent difference in reactivity between GS and CysS toward DCF is related to the formation of carbon-centered, reducing radicals from base-catalyzed isomerization of GS. DCF formation from interaction of DCFH2 with GS was inhibited by oxygen in a concentration-dependent manner over the physiological range. These data indicate that in applying DCFH2 to measure oxidizing radicals in biological systems, we have to consider not only the initial competition between thiols and DCFH2 for the oxidizing radicals, but also subsequent reactions of thiol-derived radicals, together with variables—including pH and oxygen concentration—which control thiyl radical chemistry.

Formation of 2,2′‐Diacyl‐9,9′‐bifluorenylidene Isomers from 2‐Acyl‐9‐bromofluorene and Base‐Catalyzed Isomerization of the Formed Alkenes.

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