Basal Ganglia Function Research Articles

Striatal lateral inhibition regulates action selection in a mouse model of levodopa-induced dyskinesia.

Striatal medium spiny neurons (MSNs) integrate multiple external inputs to shape motor output. In addition, MSNs form local inhibitory synaptic connections with one another. The function of striatal lateral inhibition is unknown, but one possibility is in selecting an intended action while suppressing alternatives. Action selection is disrupted in several movement disorders, including levodopa-induced dyskinesia (LID), a complication of Parkinson's disease (PD) therapy characterized by involuntary movements. Here, we identify chronic changes in the strength of striatal lateral inhibitory synapses in a mouse model of PD/LID. These synapses are also modulated by acute dopamine signaling. Chemogenetic suppression of lateral inhibition originating from dopamine D2 receptor-expressing MSNs lowers the threshold to develop involuntary movements in vivo, supporting a role in motor control. By examining the role of lateral inhibition in basal ganglia function and dysfunction, we expand the framework surrounding the role of striatal microcircuitry in action selection.

Integrated model of cerebellal supervised learning and basal ganglia’s reinforcement learning for mobile robot behavioral decision-making

Behavioral decision-making in unknown environments of mobile robots is a crucial research topic in robotics. Inspired by the working mechanism of different brain regions in mammals, this paper designed a new hybrid model integrating the functions of cerebellum and basal ganglia by simulating the memory replay of hippocampus, so as to realize the autonomous behavioral decision-making of robot in unknown environments. A reinforcement learning module based on Actor-Critic framework and a developmental network module are used to simulate the functions of the basal ganglia and cerebellum, respectively. Considering the different functions of D1 and D2 dopamine receptors in basal ganglia, an Actor network module with separate learning of positive and negative rewards is designed for the basal ganglia to realize efficient exploration of the environments by the agent. According to the characteristics of biological memory, a physiological memory priority index is designed for hippocampus memory replay, which improves the offline learning efficiency of cerebellum. The integrated model enables dynamic switching between decisions made by cerebellum and basal ganglia based on the agent’s cognitive level with respect to the environment. Finally, the effectiveness of the proposed model is verified through experiments on agent navigation in both simulation and real environments, as well as through performance comparison experiments with other learning algorithms.

Break-up and recovery of harmony between direct and indirect pathways in the basal ganglia: Huntington's disease and treatment.

The basal ganglia (BG) in the brain exhibit diverse functions for motor, cognition, and emotion. Such BG functions could be made via competitive harmony between the two competing pathways, direct pathway (DP) (facilitating movement) and indirect pathway (IP) (suppressing movement). As a result of break-up of harmony between DP and IP, there appear pathological states with disorder for movement, cognition, and psychiatry. In this paper, we are concerned about the Huntington's disease (HD), which is a genetic neurodegenerative disorder causing involuntary movement and severe cognitive and psychiatric symptoms. For the HD, the number of D2 SPNs ( ) is decreased due to degenerative loss, and hence, by decreasing (fraction of ), we investigate break-up of harmony between DP and IP in terms of their competition degree , given by the ratio of strength of DP ( ) to strength of IP ( ) (i.e., ). In the case of HD, the IP is under-active, in contrast to the case of Parkinson's disease with over-active IP, which results in increase in (from the normal value). Thus, hyperkinetic dyskinesia such as chorea (involuntary jerky movement) occurs. We also investigate treatment of HD, based on optogenetics and GP ablation, by increasing strength of IP, resulting in recovery of harmony between DP and IP. Finally, we study effect of loss of healthy synapses of all the BG cells on HD. Due to loss of healthy synapses, disharmony between DP and IP increases, leading to worsen symptoms of the HD. The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11571-024-10125-w.

Muscarinic receptor activation preferentially inhibits rebound in vulnerable dopaminergic neurons.

Dopaminergic subpopulations of the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) differentially degenerate in Parkinson's disease and are characterized by unique electrophysiological properties. The vulnerable population expresses a T-type calcium channel-mediated afterdepolarization (ADP) and shows rebound activity upon release from inhibition, whereas the resilient population does not have an ADP and is slower to fire after hyperpolarization. This rebound activity can trigger dopamine release in the striatum, an important component of basal ganglia function. Using whole-cell patch clamp electrophysiology on ex vivo slices from adult mice of both sexes, we find that muscarinic activation with the non-selective muscarinic agonist Oxotremorine inhibits rebound activity more strongly in vulnerable vs resilient SNc neurons. Here, we show that this effect depends on the direct activation of muscarinic receptors on the SNc dopaminergic neurons. Through a series of pharmacological and transgenic knock-out experiments, we tested whether the muscarinic inhibition of rebound was mediated through the canonical rebound-related ion channels: T-type calcium channels, hyperpolarization-activated cation channels (HCN), and A-type potassium channels. We find that muscarinic receptor activation inhibits HCN-mediated current (Ih) in vulnerable SNc neurons, but that Ih activity is not necessary for the muscarinic inhibition of rebound activity. Similarly, we find that Oxotremorine inhibits rebound activity independently of T-type calcium channels and A-type potassium channels. Together these findings reveal new principles governing acetylcholine and dopamine interactions, showing that muscarinic receptors directly affect SNc rebound activity in the midbrain at the somatodendritic level and differentially modify information processing in distinct SNc subpopulations.

Striosomes Target Nigral Dopamine-Containing Neurons via Direct-D1 and Indirect-D2 Pathways Paralleling Classic Direct-Indirect Basal Ganglia Systems.

Direct S-D1 and Indirect S-D2 striosomal pathways target SNpc dopamine cellsThe S-D2 indirect pathway targets a distinct central external pallidal zone (cGPe)Stimulation of S-D2 increases, of S-D1 decreases, striatal dopamine and movementS-D1 SPNs activity brackets task, inverse to a mid-task peak of dopamine release.

Sex differences in the distribution and density of regulatory interneurons in the striatum.

Dysfunction of the cortico-basal circuitry - including its primary input nucleus, the striatum - contributes to neuropsychiatric disorders, such as autism and Tourette Syndrome (TS). These conditions show marked sex differences, occurring more often in males than in females. Regulatory interneurons, such as cholinergic interneurons (CINs) and parvalbumin-expressing GABAergic fast spiking interneurons (FSIs), are implicated in human neuropsychiatric disorders such as TS, and ablation of these interneurons produces relevant behavioral pathology in male mice, but not in females. Here we investigate sex differences in the density and distribution of striatal interneurons. We use stereological quantification of CINs, FSIs, and somatostatin-expressing (SOM) GABAergic interneurons in the dorsal striatum (caudate-putamen) and the ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens) in male and female mice. Males have a higher density of CINs than females, especially in the dorsal striatum; females have equal distribution between dorsal and ventral striatum. FSIs showed similar distributions, with a greater dorsal-ventral density gradient in males than in females. SOM interneurons were denser in the ventral than in the dorsal striatum, with no sex differences. These sex differences in the density and distribution of FSIs and CINs may contribute to sex differences in basal ganglia function, particularly in the context of psychopathology.

The Basal Ganglia and Mesencephalic Locomotor Region Connectivity Matrix.

Although classically considered a relay station for basal ganglia (BG) output, the anatomy, connectivity, and function of the mesencephalic locomotor region (MLR) were redefined during the last two decades. In striking opposition to what was initially thought, MLR and BG are actually reciprocally and intimately interconnected. New viral-based, optogenetic, and mapping technologies revealed that cholinergic, glutamatergic, and GABAergic neurons coexist in this structure, which, in addition to extending descending projections, send long-range ascending fibers to the BG. These MLR projections to the BG convey motor and non-motor information to specific synaptic targets throughout different nuclei. Moreover, MLR efferent fibers originate from precise neuronal subpopulations located in particular MLR subregions, defining independent anatomo-functional subcircuits involved in particular aspects of animal behavior such as fast locomotion, explorative locomotion, posture, forelimb- related movements, speed, reinforcement, among others. In this review, we revised the literature produced during the last decade linking MLR and BG. We conclude that the classic framework considering the MLR as a homogeneous output structure passively receiving input from the BG needs to be revisited. We propose instead that the multiple subcircuits embedded in this region should be taken as independent entities that convey relevant and specific ascending information to the BG and, thus, actively participate in the execution and tuning of behavior.

Elevated antibody binding to striatal cholinergic interneurons in patients with pediatric acute-onset neuropsychiatric syndrome

Pediatric Acute-onset Neuropsychiatric Syndrome (PANS) is characterized by the abrupt onset of significant obsessive–compulsive symptoms (OCS) and/or severe food restriction, together with other neuropsychiatric manifestations. An autoimmune pathogenesis triggered by infection has been proposed for at least a subset of PANS. The older diagnosis of Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorder Associated with Streptococcus (PANDAS) describes rapid onset of OCD and/or tics associated with infection with Group A Streptococcus. The pathophysiology of PANS and PANDAS remains incompletely understood. We recently found serum antibodies from children with rigorously defined PANDAS to selectively bind to cholinergic interneurons (CINs) in the striatum. Here we examine this binding in children with relapsing and remitting PANS, a more heterogeneous condition, collected in a distinct clinical context from those examined in our previous work, from children with a clinical history of Streptococcus infection. IgG from PANS cases showed elevated binding to striatal CINs in both mouse and human brain. Patient plasma collected during symptom flare decreased a molecular marker of CIN activity, phospho-riboprotein S6, in ex vivo brain slices; control plasma did not. Neither elevated antibody binding to CINs nor diminished CIN activity was seen with plasma collected from the same children during remission. These findings replicate what we have seen previously in PANDAS and support the hypothesis that at least a subset of PANS cases have a neuroimmune pathogenesis. Given the critical role of CINs in modulating basal ganglia function, these findings confirm striatal CINs as a locus of interest in the pathophysiology of both PANS and PANDAS.

Subthalamic nucleus input-output dynamics are correlated with Parkinson’s burden and treatment efficacy

The subthalamic nucleus (STN) is pivotal in basal ganglia function in health and disease. Micro-electrode recordings of >25,000 recording sites from 146 Parkinson’s patients undergoing deep brain stimulation (DBS) allowed differentiation between subthalamic input, represented by local field potential (LFP), and output, reflected in spike discharge rate (SPK). As with many natural systems, STN neuronal activity exhibits power-law dynamics characterized by the exponent α. We, therefore, dissected STN data into aperiodic and periodic components using the Fitting Oscillations & One Over F (FOOOF) tool. STN LFP showed significantly higher aperiodic exponents than SPK. Additionally, SPK beta oscillations demonstrated a downward frequency shift compared to LFP. Finally, the STN aperiodic and spiking parameters explained a significant fraction of the variance of the burden and treatment efficacy of Parkinson’s disease. The unique STN input-output dynamics may clarify its role in Parkinson’s physiology and can be utilized in closed-loop DBS therapy.

Simulated Dopamine Modulation of a Neurorobotic Model of the Basal Ganglia.

The vertebrate basal ganglia play an important role in action selection-the resolution of conflicts between alternative motor programs. The effective operation of basal ganglia circuitry is also known to rely on appropriate levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine. We investigated reducing or increasing the tonic level of simulated dopamine in a prior model of the basal ganglia integrated into a robot control architecture engaged in a foraging task inspired by animal behaviour. The main findings were that progressive reductions in the levels of simulated dopamine caused slowed behaviour and, at low levels, an inability to initiate movement. These states were partially relieved by increased salience levels (stronger sensory/motivational input). Conversely, increased simulated dopamine caused distortion of the robot's motor acts through partially expressed motor activity relating to losing actions. This could also lead to an increased frequency of behaviour switching. Levels of simulated dopamine that were either significantly lower or higher than baseline could cause a loss of behavioural integration, sometimes leaving the robot in a 'behavioral trap'. That some analogous traits are observed in animals and humans affected by dopamine dysregulation suggests that robotic models could prove useful in understanding the role of dopamine neurotransmission in basal ganglia function and dysfunction.

ATP13A2 (PARK9) and basal ganglia function.

ATP13A2 is a lysosomal protein involved in polyamine transport with loss of function mutations associated with multiple neurodegenerative conditions. These include early onset Parkinson's disease, Kufor-Rakeb Syndrome, neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis, hereditary spastic paraplegia, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. While ATP13A2 mutations may result in clinical heterogeneity, the basal ganglia appear to be impacted in the majority of cases. The basal ganglia is particularly vulnerable to environmental exposures such as heavy metals, pesticides, and industrial agents which are also established risk factors for many neurodegenerative conditions. Not surprisingly then, impaired function of ATP13A2 has been linked to heavy metal toxicity including manganese, iron, and zinc. This review discusses the role of ATP13A2 in basal ganglia function and dysfunction, potential common pathological mechanisms in ATP13A2-related disorders, and how gene x environment interactions may contribute to basal ganglia dysfunction.

Timing Patterns in the Extended Basal Ganglia System.

The human brain is a constructive organ. It generates predictions to modulate its functioning and continuously adapts to a dynamic environment. Increasingly, the temporal dimension of motor and non-motor behaviour is recognised as a key component of this predictive bias. Nevertheless, the intricate interplay of the neural mechanisms that encode, decode and evaluate temporal information to give rise to a sense of time and control over sensorimotor timing remains largely elusive. Among several brain systems, the basal ganglia have been consistently linked to interval- and beat-based timing operations. Considering the tight embedding of the basal ganglia into multiple complex neurofunctional networks, it is clear that they have to interact with other proximate and distal brain systems. While the primary target of basal ganglia output is the thalamus, many regions connect to the striatum of the basal ganglia, their main input relay. This establishes widespread connectivity, forming the basis for first- and second-order interactions with other systems implicated in timing such as the cerebellum and supplementary motor areas. However, next to this structural interconnectivity, additional functions need to be considered to better understand their contribution to temporally predictive adaptation. To this end, we develop the concept of interval-based patterning, conceived as a temporally explicit hierarchical sequencing operation that underlies motor and non-motor behaviour as a common interpretation of basal ganglia function.

Updating the striatal-pallidal wiring diagram.

The striatal and pallidal complexes are basal ganglia structures that orchestrate learning and execution of flexible behavior. Models of how the basal ganglia subserve these functions have evolved considerably, and the advent of optogenetic and molecular tools has shed light on the heterogeneity of subcircuits within these pathways. However, a synthesis of how molecularly diverse neurons integrate into existing models of basal ganglia function is lacking. Here, we provide an overview of the neurochemical and molecular diversity of striatal and pallidal neurons and synthesize recent circuit connectivity studies in rodents that takes this diversity into account. We also highlight anatomical organizational principles that distinguish the dorsal and ventral basal ganglia pathways in rodents. Future work integrating the molecular and anatomical properties of striatal and pallidal subpopulations may resolve controversies regarding basal ganglia network function.

Distinct Contributions of the Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia to Arithmetic Procedures.

Humans exhibit complex mathematical skills attributed to the exceptional enlargement of neocortical regions throughout evolution. In the current work, we initiated a novel exploration of the ancient subcortical neural network essential for mathematical cognition. Using a neuropsychological approach, we report that degeneration of two subcortical structures, the cerebellum and basal ganglia, impairs performance in symbolic arithmetic. We identify distinct computational impairments in male and female participants with cerebellar degeneration (CD) or Parkinson's disease (PD). The CD group exhibited a disproportionate cost when the arithmetic sum increased, suggesting that the cerebellum is critical for iterative procedures required for calculations. The PD group showed a disproportionate cost for equations with increasing addends, suggesting that the basal ganglia are critical for chaining multiple operations. In Experiment 2, the two patient groups exhibited intact practice gains for repeated equations at odds with an alternative hypothesis that these impairments were related to memory retrieval. Notably, we discuss how the counting and chaining operations relate to cerebellar and basal ganglia function in other task domains (e.g., motor processes). Overall, we provide a novel perspective on how the cerebellum and basal ganglia contribute to symbolic arithmetic. Our studies demonstrate the constraints on the computational role of two subcortical regions in higher cognition.

A common modular design of nervous systems originating in soft-bodied invertebrates.

Nervous systems of vertebrates and invertebrates show a common modular theme in the flow of information for cost-benefit decisions. Sensory inputs are incentivized by integrating stimulus qualities with motivation and memory to affect appetitive state, a system of homeostatic drives, and labelled for directionality. Appetitive state determines action responses from a repertory of possibles and transmits the decision to a premotor system that frames the selected action in motor arousal and appropriate postural and locomotion commands. These commands are then sent to the primary motor pattern generators controlling the motorneurons, with feedback at each stage. In the vertebrates, these stages are mediated by forebrain pallial derivatives for incentive and directionality (olfactory bulb, cerebral cortex, pallial amygdala, etc.) interacting with hypothalamus (homeostasis, motivation, and reward) for action selection in the forebrain basal ganglia, the mid/hindbrain reticular formation as a premotor translator for posture, locomotion, and arousal state, and the spinal cord and cranial nuclei as primary motor pattern generators. Gastropods, like the predatory sea slug Pleurobranchaea californica, show a similar organization but with differences that suggest how complex brains evolved from an ancestral soft-bodied bilaterian along with segmentation, jointed skeletons, and complex exteroceptors. Their premotor feeding network combines functions of hypothalamus and basal ganglia for homeostasis, motivation, presumed reward, and action selection for stimulus approach or avoidance. In Pleurobranchaea, the premotor analogy to the vertebrate reticular formation is the bilateral "A-cluster" of cerebral ganglion neurons that controls posture, locomotion, and serotonergic motor arousal. The A-cluster transmits motor commands to the pedal ganglia analogs of the spinal cord, for primary patterned motor output. Apparent pallial precursors are not immediately evident in Pleurobranchaea's central nervous system, but a notable candidate is a subepithelial nerve net in the peripheral head region that integrates chemotactile stimuli for incentive and directionality. Evolutionary centralization of its computational functions may have led to the olfaction-derived pallial forebrain in the ancestor's vertebrate descendants and their analogs in arthropods and annelids.

Conditional deletion of neurexins dysregulates neurotransmission from dopamine neurons.

Midbrain dopamine (DA) neurons are key regulators of basal ganglia functions. The axonal domain of these neurons is highly complex, with a large subset of non-synaptic release sites and a smaller subset of synaptic terminals from which in addition to DA, glutamate or GABA are also released. The molecular mechanisms regulating the connectivity of DA neurons and their neurochemical identity are unknown. An emerging literature suggests that neuroligins, trans-synaptic cell adhesion molecules, regulate both DA connectivity and neurotransmission. However, the contribution of their major interaction partners, neurexins (Nrxns) is unexplored. Here we tested the hypothesis that Nrxns regulate DA neuron neurotransmission. Mice with conditional deletion of all Nrxns in DA neurons (DAT::Nrxns KO) exhibited normal basic motor functions. However, they showed an impaired locomotor response to the psychostimulant amphetamine. In line with an alteration in DA neurotransmission, decreased levels of the membrane DA transporter (DAT) and increased levels of the vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT2) were detected in the striatum of DAT::Nrxns KO mice, along with reduced activity-dependent DA release. Strikingly, electrophysiological recordings revealed an increase of GABA co-release from DA neuron axons in the striatum of these mice. Together, these findings suggest that Nrxns act as regulators of the functional connectivity of DA neurons.

Assessing the Location, Relative Expression and Subclass of Dopamine Receptors in the Cerebellum of Hemi-Parkinsonian Rats

Parkinson’s Disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease with loss of dopaminergic neurons in the nigrostriatal pathway resulting in basal ganglia (BG) dysfunction. This is largely why much of the preclinical and clinical research has focused on pathophysiological changes in these brain areas in PD. The cerebellum is another motor area of the brain. Yet, if and how this brain area responds to PD therapy and contributes to maintaining motor function fidelity in the face of diminished BG function remains largely unanswered. Limited research suggests that dopaminergic signaling exists in the cerebellum with functional dopamine receptors, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and dopamine transporters (DATs); however, much of this information is largely derived from healthy animals and humans. Here, we identified the location and relative expression of dopamine 1 receptors (D1R) and dopamine 2 receptors (D2R) in the cerebellum of a hemi-parkinsonian male rat model of PD. D1R expression was higher in PD animals compared to sham animals in both hemispheres in the purkinje cell layer (PCL) and granule cell layer (GCL) of the cerebellar cortex. Interestingly, D2R expression was higher in PD animals than sham animals mostly in the posterior lobe of the PCL, but no discernible pattern of D2R expression was seen in the GCL between PD and sham animals. To our knowledge, we are the first to report these findings, which may lay the foundation for further interrogation of the role of the cerebellum in PD therapy and/or pathophysiology.

Basal ganglia network dynamics and function: Role of direct, indirect and hyper-direct pathways in action selection

ABSTRACT Basal ganglia (BG) are a widely recognized neural basis for action selection, but its decision-making mechanism is still a difficult problem for researchers. Therefore, we constructed a spiking neural network inspired by the BG anatomical data. Simulation experiments were based on the principle of dis-inhibition and our functional hypothesis within the BG: the direct pathway, the indirect pathway, and the hyper-direct pathway of the BG jointly implement the initiation execution and termination of motor programs. Firstly, we studied the dynamic process of action selection with the network, which contained intra-group competition and inter-group competition. Secondly, we focused on the effects of the stimulus intensity and the proportion of excitation and inhibition on the GPi/SNr. The results suggested that inhibition and excitation shape action selection. They also explained why the firing rate of GPi/SNr did not continue to increase in the action-selection experiment. Finally, we discussed the experimental results with the functional hypothesis. Uniquely, this paper summarized the decision-making neural mechanism of action selection based on the direct pathway, the indirect pathway, and the hyper-direct pathway within BG.

Binge alcohol drinking alters the differential control of cholinergic interneurons over nucleus accumbens D1 and D2 medium spiny neurons.

Animals studies support the notion that striatal cholinergic interneurons (ChIs) play a central role in basal ganglia function by regulating associative learning, reward processing, and motor control. In the nucleus accumbens (NAc), a brain region that mediates rewarding properties of substance abuse, acetylcholine regulates glutamatergic, dopaminergic, and GABAergic neurotransmission in naïve mice. However, it is unclear how ChIs orchestrate the control of these neurotransmitters/modulators to determine the synaptic excitability of medium spiny neurons (MSNs), the only projecting neurons that translate accumbens electrical activity into behavior. Also unknown is the impact of binge alcohol drinking on the regulation of dopamine D1- and D2 receptor-expressing MSNs (D1- and D2-MSNs, respectively) by ChIs. To investigate this question, we optogenetically stimulated ChIs while recording evoked and spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (sEPSCs) in nucleus accumbens core D1- and D2-MSN of ChAT.ChR2.eYFPxDrd1.tdtomato mice. In alcohol-naïve mice, we found that stimulating NAc ChIs decreased sEPSCs frequency in both D1- and D2-MSNs, presumably through a presynaptic mechanism. Interestingly, ChI stimulation decreased MSN synaptic excitability through different mechanisms in D1- vs. D2-MSNs. While decrease of ChI-mediated sEPSCs frequency in D1-MSNs was mediated by dopamine, the same effect in D2-MSNs resulted from a direct control of glutamate release by ChIs. Interestingly, after 2 weeks of binge alcohol drinking, optogenetic stimulation of ChIs enhanced glutamate release in D1-MSNs, while its effect on D2-MSNs remained unchanged. Taken together, these data suggest that cholinergic interneurons could be a key target for regulation of NAc circuitry and for alcohol consumption.

Interactions between gut microbiota and Parkinson's disease: The role of microbiota-derived amino acid metabolism.

Non-motor symptoms (NMS) of Parkinson's disease (PD), such as constipation, sleep disorders, and olfactory deficits, may emerge up to 20 years earlier than motor symptoms. A series of evidence indicates that the pathology of PD may occur from the gastrointestinal tract to the brain. Numerous studies support that the gut microbiota communicates with the brain through the immune system, special amino acid metabolism, and the nervous system in PD. Recently, there is growing recognition that the gut microbiota plays a vital role in the modulation of multiple neurochemical pathways via the "gut microbiota-brain axis" (GMBA). Many gut microbiota metabolites, such as fatty acids, amino acids, and bile acids, convey signaling functions as they mediate the crosstalk between gut microbiota and host physiology. Amino acids' abundance and species alteration, including glutamate and tryptophan, may disturb the signaling transmission between nerve cells and disrupt the normal basal ganglia function in PD. Specific amino acids and their receptors are considered new potential targets for ameliorating PD. The present study aimed to systematically summarize all available evidence on the gut microbiota-derived amino acid metabolism alterations associated with PD.