Baryon Cycle Research Articles

Constraints on the evolution of the relationship between H i mass and halo mass in the last 12 Gyr

The neutral hydrogen (HI) content of dark matter haloes forms an intermediate state in the baryon cycle that connects the hot shock-heated gas and cold star-forming gas in haloes. Measurement of the relationship between HI mass and halo mass therefore puts important constraints on galaxy formation models. We combine radio observations of HI in emission at low redshift ($z\sim 0$) with optical/UV observations of HI in absorption at high redshift ($1<z<4$) to derive constraints on the evolution of the HI-mass halo-mass (HIHM) relation from redshift $z=4$ to $z=0$. We find that one can model the HIHM relation similar to the stellar-mass halo-mass (SHM) relation at $z \sim 0$. At $z=0$, haloes with mass $10^{11.7}$ M$_\odot$ have the highest HI mass fraction ($\sim 1\%$), which is about four times smaller than their stellar mass fraction. We model the evolution of the HIHM relation in a manner similar to that of the SHM relation. Combining this parameterisation with a redshift- and mass-dependent modified Navarro-Frenk-White (NFW) profile for the HI density within a halo, we draw constraints on the evolution of the HIHM relation from the observed HI column density, incidence rate, and clustering bias at high redshift. We compare these findings with results from hydrodynamical simulations and other approaches in the literature, and find the models to be consistent with each other at the $68\%$ confidence level.

Mufasa: Galaxy star formation, gas, and metal properties across cosmic time

We examine galaxy star formation rates (SFRs), metallicities, and gas contents predicted by the MUFASA cosmological hydrodynamic simulations, which employ meshless hydrodynamics and novel feedback prescriptions that yield a good match to observed galaxy stellar mass assembly. We combine 50, 25, and 12.5 Mpc/h boxes with a quarter billion particles each to show that MUFASA broadly reproduces a wide range of relevant observations, including SFR and specific SFR functions, the mass-metallicity relation, HI and H2 fractions, HI (21 cm) and CO luminosity functions, and cosmic gas density evolution. There are mild but significant discrepancies, such as too many high-SFR galaxies, overly metal-rich and HI-poor galaxies at M*>10^{10} Mo, and sSFRs that are too low at z~1-2. The HI mass function increases by x2 out to z~1 then steepens to higher redshifts, while the CO luminosity function computed using the Narayanan et al. conversion factor shows a rapid increase of CO-bright galaxies out to z~2 in accord with data. Omega_HI and Omega_H2 both scale roughly as (1+z)^0.7 out to z~3, comparable to the rise in HI and H2 fractions. MUFASA galaxies with high SFR at a given M* have lower metallicities and higher HI and H2 fractions, following observed trends; we make quantitative predictions for how fluctuations in the baryon cycle drive correlated scatter around galaxy scaling relations. Most of these trends are well converged with numerical resolution. These successes highlight MUFASA as a viable platform to study many facets of cosmological galaxy evolution.

THE HIGHLY IONIZED CIRCUMGALACTIC MEDIUM IS KINEMATICALLY UNIFORM AROUND GALAXIES

ABSTRACT The circumgalactic medium (CGM) traced by O vi doublet absorption has been found to concentrate along the projected major and minor axes of the host galaxies. This suggests that O vi traces accreting and outflowing gas, respectively, which are key components of the baryon cycle of galaxies. We investigate this further by examining the kinematics of 29 O vi absorbers associated with galaxies at as a function of galaxy color, inclination, and azimuthal angle. Each galaxy was imaged with the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), and the absorption was detected in COS/HST spectra of nearby ( kpc) background quasars. We use the pixel-velocity two-point correlation function to characterize the velocity spread of the absorbers, which is a method used previously for a sample of Mg ii absorber–galaxy pairs. The absorption velocity spread for O vi is more extended than Mg ii, which suggests that the two ions trace differing components of the CGM. Again, in contrast to Mg ii, the O vi absorption velocity spreads are similar regardless of galaxy color, inclination, and azimuthal angle. This indicates that the kinematics of the high-ionization gas is not strongly influenced by the current star formation activity in the galaxy. The kinematic homogeneity of O vi absorption and its tendency to be observed mainly along the projected galaxy major and minor axes is likely due to varying ionization conditions and gas densities about the galaxy. Gas in intermediate azimuthal angles may be ionized out of the O vi phase, possibly resulting in an azimuthal angle dependence of the distribution of gas in higher ionization states.

The growth of discs and bulges during hierarchical galaxy formation – II. Metallicity, stellar populations and dynamical evolution

We investigate the properties of the stellar populations of model galaxies as a function of galaxy evolutionary history and angular momentum content. We use the new semi-analytic model presented in Tonini et al. (2016). This new model follows the angular momentum evolution of gas and stars, providing the base for a new star formation recipe, and treatment of the effects of mergers that depends on the central galaxy dynamical structure. We find that the new recipes have the effect of boosting the efficiency of the baryonic cycle in producing and recycling metals, as well as preventing minor mergers from diluting the metallicity of bulges and ellipticals. The model reproduces the stellar mass - stellar metallicity relation for galaxies above 1e10 solar masses, including Brightest Cluster Galaxies. Model disks, galaxies dominated by instability-driven components, and merger-driven objects each stem from different evolutionary channels. These model galaxies therefore occupy different loci in the galaxy mass-size relation, which we find to be in accord with the Atlas 3D classification of disk galaxies, fast rotators and slow rotators. We find that the stellar populations' properties depend on the galaxy evolutionary type, with more evolved stellar populations being part of systems that have lost or dissipated more angular momentum during their assembly history.

THE MOLECULAR BARYON CYCLE OF M82

ABSTRACT Baryons cycle into galaxies from the intergalactic medium and are converted into stars; a fraction of the baryons are ejected out of galaxies by stellar feedback. Here we present new high-resolution (3.″9; 68 pc) 12CO(2–1) and 12CO(3–2) images that probe these three stages of the baryon cycle in the nearby starburst M82. We combine these new observations with previous 12CO(1–0) and [Fe ii] images to study the physical conditions within the molecular gas. Using a Bayesian analysis and the radiative transfer code RADEX, we model temperatures and densities of molecular hydrogen, as well as column densities of CO. Besides the disk, we concentrate on two regions within the galaxy: an expanding super-bubble and the base of a molecular streamer. Shock diagnostics, kinematics, and optical extinction suggest that the streamer is an inflowing filament, with a mass inflow rate of molecular gas of 3.5 yr−1. We measure the mass outflow rate of molecular gas of the expanding super-bubble to be 17 yr−1, five times higher than the inferred inflow rate and 1.3 times the star formation rate of the galaxy. The high mass outflow rate and large star formation rate will deplete the galaxy of molecular gas within eight million years, unless there are additional sources of molecular gas.

IN-N-OUT: THE GAS CYCLE FROM DWARFS TO SPIRAL GALAXIES

ABSTRACT We examine the scalings of galactic outflows with halo mass across a suite of 20 high-resolution cosmological zoom galaxy simulations covering halo masses in the range . These simulations self-consistently generate outflows from the available supernova energy in a manner that successfully reproduces key galaxy observables, including the stellar mass–halo mass, Tully–Fisher, and mass–metallicity relations. We quantify the importance of ejective feedback to setting the stellar mass relative to the efficiency of gas accretion and star formation. Ejective feedback is increasingly important as galaxy mass decreases; we find an effective mass loading factor that scales as , with an amplitude and shape that are invariant with redshift. These scalings are consistent with analytic models for energy-driven wind, based solely on the halo potential. Recycling is common: about half of the outflow mass across all galaxy masses is later reaccreted. The recycling timescale is typically ∼1 Gyr, virtually independent of halo mass. Recycled material is reaccreted farther out in the disk and with typically ∼2–3 times more angular momentum. These results elucidate and quantify how the baryon cycle plausibly regulates star formation and alters the angular momentum distribution of disk material across the halo mass range where most cosmic star formation occurs.

Local Volume TiNy Titans: gaseous dwarf–dwarf interactions in the Local Universe

In this paper, we introduce the Local Volume TiNy Titans sample (LV-TNT), which is a part of a larger body of work on interacting dwarf galaxies: TNT (Stierwalt et al. 2015). This LV-TNT sample consists of 10 dwarf galaxy pairs in the Local Universe (< 30 Mpc from Milky Way), which span mass ratios of M_(*,1)/M_(*,2) < 20, projected separations < 100 kpc, and pair member masses of log(M_*/M_Sun) < 9.9. All 10 LV-TNT pairs have resolved synthesis maps of their neutral hydrogen, are located in a range of environments and captured at various interaction stages. This enables us to do a comparative study of the diffuse gas in dwarf-dwarf interactions and disentangle the gas lost due to interactions with halos of massive galaxies, from the gas lost due to mutual interaction between the dwarfs. We find that the neutral gas is extended in the interacting pairs when compared to non-paired analogs, indicating that gas is tidally pre-processed. Additionally, we find that the environment can shape the HI distributions in the form of trailing tails and that the gas is not unbound and lost to the surroundings unless the dwarf pair is residing near a massive galaxy. We conclude that a nearby, massive host galaxy is what ultimately prevents the gas from being reaccreted. Dwarf-dwarf interactions thus represent an important part of the baryon cycle of low mass galaxies, enabling the "parking" of gas at large distances to serve as a continual gas supply channel until accretion by a more massive host.

Baryon cycling in the low-redshift circumgalactic medium: a comparison of simulations to the COS-Halos survey

We analyze the low-redshift (z~0.2) circumgalactic medium by comparing absorption-line data from the COS-Halos Survey to absorption around a matched galaxy sample from two cosmological hydrodynamic simulations. The models include different prescriptions for galactic outflows, namely hybrid energy/momentum driven wind (ezw), and constant winds (cw). We extract for comparison direct observables including equivalent widths, covering factors, ion ratios, and kinematics. Both wind models are generally in good agreement with these observations for HI and certain low ionization metal lines, but show poorer agreement with higher ionization metal lines including SiIII and OVI that are well-observed by COS-Halos. These discrepancies suggest that both wind models predict too much cool, metal-enriched gas and not enough hot gas, and/or that the metals are not sufficiently well-mixed. This may reflect our model assumption of ejecting outflows as cool and unmixing gas. Our ezw simulation includes a heuristic prescription to quench massive galaxies by super-heating its ISM gas, which we show yields sufficient low ionisation absorption to be broadly consistent with observations, but also substantial OVI absorption that is inconsistent with data, suggesting that gas around quenched galaxies in the real Universe does not cool. At impact parameters of <50 kpc, recycling winds dominate the absorption of low ions and even HI, while OVI almost always arises from metals ejected longer than 1 Gyr ago. The similarity between the wind models is surprising, since we show that they differ substantially in their predicted amount and phase distribution of halo gas. We show that this similarity owes mainly to our comparison here at fixed stellar mass rather than at fixed halo mass in our previous works, which suggests that CGM properties are more closely tied to the stellar mass of galaxies rather than halo mass.

Probing the Baryon Cycle in Galaxy Outskirts

AbstractGalaxies are born and grow within a cosmic ecosystem, in which they receive material from surrounding intergalactic gas via gravitationally-driven inflows and expel material via powerful galactic outflows. These processes, collectively referred to as the baryon cycle, are increasingly believed to govern galaxy growth over cosmic time. I discuss new insights on the baryon cycle using analytic models and hydrodynamical simulations of galaxy evolution, particularly emphasizing how galaxy outskirts are the prime locale within which to observe these processes in action by examining observational tracers such as rest-ultraviolet absorption lines and the neutral and molecular gas content of galaxies.

The distribution of mass components in simulated disc galaxies

Using 22 hydrodynamical simulated galaxies in a LCDM cosmological context we recover not only the observed baryonic Tully-Fisher relation, but also the observed "mass discrepancy--acceleration" relation, which reflects the distribution of the main components of the galaxies throughout their disks. This implies that the simulations, which span the range 52 < V$_{\rm flat}$ < 222 km/s where V$_{\rm flat}$ is the circular velocity at the flat part of the rotation curve, and match galaxy scaling relations, are able to recover the observed relations between the distributions of stars, gas and dark matter over the radial range for which we have observational rotation curve data. Furthermore, we explicitly match the observed baryonic to halo mass relation for the first time with simulated galaxies. We discuss our results in the context of the baryon cycle that is inherent in these simulations, and with regards to the effect of baryonic processes on the distribution of dark matter.

MAGiiCAT V. ORIENTATION OF OUTFLOWS AND ACCRETION DETERMINE THE KINEMATICS AND COLUMN DENSITIES OF THE CIRCUMGALACTIC MEDIUM

We investigate the dependence of gas kinematics and column densities in the MgII-absorbing circumgalactic medium on galaxy color, azimuthal angle, and inclination to trace baryon cycle processes. Our sample of 30 foreground isolated galaxies at $0.3<z_{\rm gal}<1.0$, imaged with the Hubble Space Telescope, are probed by background quasars within a projected distance of $20<D<110$ kpc. From the high-resolution ($\Delta v\simeq 6.6$ km s$^{-1}$) quasar spectra, we quantify the extent of the absorber velocity structure with pixel-velocity two-point correlation functions. Absorbers with the largest velocity dispersions are associated with blue, face-on ($i<57^{\circ}$) galaxies probed along the projected minor axis ($\Phi \geq 45^{\circ}$), while those with the smallest velocity dispersions belong to red, face-on galaxies along the minor axis. The velocity structure is similar for edge-on ($i \geq 57^{\circ}$) galaxies regardless of galaxy color or azimuthal angle, for red galaxies with azimuthal angle, and for blue and red galaxies probed along the projected major axis ($\Phi<45^{\circ}$). The cloud column densities for face-on galaxies and red galaxies are smaller than for edge-on galaxies and blue galaxies, respectively. These results are consistent with biconical outflows along the minor axis for star-forming galaxies and accreting and/or rotating gas, which is most easily observed in edge-on galaxies probed along the major axis. Gas entrained in outflows may be fragmented with large velocity dispersions, while gas accreting onto or rotating around galaxies may be more coherent due to large path lengths and smaller velocity dispersions. Quiescent galaxies may exhibit little-to-no outflows along the minor axis, while accretion/rotation may exist along the major axis.

Equilibrium model constraints on baryon cycling across cosmic time

Galaxies strongly self-regulate their growth via energetic feedback from stars, supernovae, and black holes, but these processes are among the least understood aspects of galaxy formation theory. We present an analytic galaxy evolution model that directly constrains such feedback processes from observed galaxy scaling relations. The equilibrium model, which is broadly valid for star-forming central galaxies that dominate cosmic star formation, is based on the ansatz that galaxies live in a slowly-evolving equilibrium between inflows, outflows, and star formation. Using a Bayesian Monte Carlo Markov chain approach, we constrain our model to match observed galaxy scaling relations between stellar mass and halo mass, star formation rate, and metallicity from 0<z<2. A good fit (chi^2~1.6) is achieved with eight free parameters. We further show that constraining our model to any two of the three data sets also produces a fit to the third that is within reasonable systematic uncertainties. The resulting best-fit parameters that describe baryon cycling suggest galactic outflow scalings intermediate between energy and momentum-driven winds, a weak dependence of wind recycling time on mass, and a quenching mass scale that evolves modestly upwards with redshift. This model further predicts a stellar mass-star formation rate relation that is in good agreement with observations to z~6. Our results suggest that this simple analytic framework captures the basic physical processes required to model the mean evolution of stars and metals in galaxies, despite not incorporating many canonical ingredients of galaxy formation models such as merging or disk formation.

Tracing inflows and outflows with absorption lines in circumgalactic gas

We examine how HI and metal absorption lines within low-redshift galaxy halos trace the dynamical state of circumgalactic gas, using cosmological hydrodynamic simulations that include a well-vetted heuristic model for galactic outflows. We categorize inflowing, outflowing, and ambient gas based on its history and fate as tracked in our simulation. Following our earlier work showing that the ionisation level of absorbers was a primary factor in determining the physical conditions of absorbing gas, we show here that it is also a governing factor for its dynamical state. Low-ionisation metal absorbers (e.g. MgII) tend to arise in gas that will fall onto galaxies within several Gyr, while high-ionisation metal absorbers (e.g. OVI) generally trace material that was deposited by outflows many Gyr ago. Inflowing gas is dominated by enriched material that was previously ejected in an outflow, hence accretion at low redshifts is typically substantially enriched. Recycling wind material is preferentially found closer to galaxies, and is more dominant in lower-mass halos since high-mass halos have more hot gas that is able to support itself against infall. Low-mass halos also tend to re-eject more of their accreted material, owing to our outflow prescription that employs higher mass loading factors for lower-mass galaxies. Typical HI absorbers trace unenriched ambient material that is not participating in the baryon cycle, but stronger HI absorbers arise in cool, enriched inflowing gas. Instantaneous radial velocity measures of absorbers are generally poor at distinguishing between inflowing and outflowing gas, except in the case of very recent outflows. These results suggest that probing halo gas using a range of absorbers can provide detailed information about the amount and physical conditions of material that is participating in the baryon cycle.

MaGICC baryon cycle: the enrichment history of simulated disc galaxies

Using cosmological galaxy formation simulations from the MaGICC project, spanning more than three magnitudes in stellar mass (~10^7-3x10^{10} Msun), we trace the baryonic cycle of infalling gas from the virial radius through to its participation in the star formation process. An emphasis is placed upon the temporal history of chemical enrichment during its passage through the corona and CGM. We derive the distributions of time between gas crossing the virial radius and being accreted to the star forming region (which allows mixing within the corona), as well as the time between gas being accreted to the star forming region and then forming stars (which allows mixing within the disc). Significant numbers of stars are formed from gas that cycles back through the hot halo after first accreting to the star forming region. Gas entering high mass galaxies is pre-enriched in low mass proto-galaxies prior to entering the virial radius of the central progenitor, with only small amounts of primordial gas accreted, even at high redshift (z~5). After entering the virial radius, significant further enrichment occurs prior to the accretion of the gas to the star forming region, with gas that is feeding the star forming region surpassing 0.1Z by z=0. Mixing with halo gas, itself enriched via galactic fountains, is thus crucial in determining the metallicity at which gas is accreted to the disc. The lowest mass simulation (Mvir~2x10^{10}Msun, with M*~10^7Msun), by contrast, accretes primordial gas through the virial radius and onto the disc at all times. Much like the classical analytical solutions to the `G-dwarf problem', overproduction of low-metallicity stars is ameliorated by the inefficiency of star formation. Finally, gas outflow/metal removal rates from star forming regions as a function of galactic mass are presented.

Overconsumption, outflows and the quenching of satellite galaxies

Abstract The baryon cycle of galaxies is a dynamic process involving the intake, consumption and ejection of vast quantities of gas. In contrast, the conventional picture of satellite galaxies has them methodically turning a large gas reservoir into stars until this reservoir is forcibly removed due to external ram pressure. This picture needs revision. Our modern understanding of the baryon cycle suggests that in some regimes the simple interruption of the fresh gas supply may quench satellite galaxies long before stripping events occur, a process we call overconsumption. We compile measurements from the literature of observed satellite quenching times at a range of redshifts to determine if satellites are principally quenched through orbit-based gas stripping events – either direct stripping of the disc (ram pressure stripping) or the extended gas halo (strangulation) – or from internally driven star formation outflows via overconsumption. These time-scales show significant deviations from the evolution expected for gas stripping mechanisms and suggest that either ram pressure stripping is much more efficient at high redshift, or that secular outflows quench satellites before orbit-based stripping occurs. Given the strong redshift evolution of star formation rates, at high redshift even moderate outflow rates will lead to extremely short delay times with the expectation that high-redshift (z &amp;gt; 1.5) satellites will be quenched almost immediately following the cessation of cosmological inflow. Observations of high-redshift satellites give an indirect but sensitive measure of the outflow rate, with current measurements suggesting that outflows are no larger than 2.5 times the star formation rate for galaxies with a stellar mass of 1010.5 M⊙.

Influence of baryonic physics in galaxy simulations:

Recent work in galaxy formation has enlightened the important role of baryon physics, to solve the main problems encountered by the standard theory at the galactic scale, such as the galaxy stellar mass functions, or the missing satellites problem. The present work aims at investigating in particular the role of the cold and dense molecular phase, which could play a role of gas reservoir in the outer galaxy discs, with low star formation efficiency. Through TreeSPH simulations, implementing the cooling to low temperatures, and the inclusion of the molecular hydrogen component, several feedback efficiencies are studied, and results on the gas morphology and star formation are obtained. It is shown that molecular hydrogen allows some slow star formation (with gas depletion times of about 5 Gyr) to occur in the outer parts of the discs. This dense and quiescent phase might be a way to store a significant fraction of dark baryons, in a relatively long time-scale, in the complete baryonic cycle, connecting the galaxy discs to hot gaseous haloes and to the cosmic filaments.