Baroque Composers Research Articles

Esteban Salas and His Legacy of Music Education in Cuba

The Conservatorio Esteban Salas, situated steps away from the main square of Santiago de Cuba, is well known to residents of this eastern Caribbean city. With a long-standing reputation for producing professional musicians of the highest quality, this institution, locals realize, is important for maintaining Santiago's status as the keeper of the country's artistic soul. (1) Residents are also well acquainted with the institution's namesake, Baroque composer Esteban Salas. A humble priest now considered to be Cuba's first native-born art music composer, Salas is known both in Santiago and throughout Cuba as the founder of a lineage of musical excellence. (2) Sadly, such recognition is somewhat limited to Cuban nationals. For those not living on the island, and especially for non-Spanish speakers, information about the history of Cuban music education and the contributions of Esteban Salas is difficult to obtain. In the case of the former, restrictions on communication both to and from the island, coupled with the government's reluctance to translate official documents into English, makes it difficult for nonresidents to research the educational practices of Cuba. (3) In the case of the latter, materials relating to Esteban Salas were lost in the Santiago Cathedral archives until the 1940s. This essay therefore serves to expose a wider audience to the educational legacy of Esteban Salas. Throughout his lifetime, Salas worked tirelessly to build Santiago Cathedral into one of the nation's first centers of music education, securing its position of cultural importance for centuries to come. Salas's legacy in turn enabled the establishment of private music teaching and the introduction of music conservatories into Oriente province. (4) Going on to influence a nation, centuries after his death, Salas's oeuvre provided a starting point for the musicological study of Cuban art music. To fully understand the depth of Salas's legacy, this essay is divided into sections. To familiarize the reader with the setting in which Salas worked, I first give a brief historical introduction to the city of Santiago de Cuba, outlining its economic, political, and cultural importance from colonial times to the present day. Then in the second section I investigate the role of the Catholic Church in colonial Santiago de Cuba and how this institution provided fertile ground in which the composer could establish his legacy. In the third section, I outline the personal biography of the composer with specific attention paid to his lifetime achievements. Finally, to illuminate the impact Salas had on the history of Cuban music education well beyond his life, I trace his pedagogical lineage, concluding with a detailed critique of the Conservatorio Esteban Salas and the development of a national focus for musicological study in Cuba. Santiago de Cuba: La Tierra Caliente Known as la tierra caliente (the warm place) not only for its climate but also for the hospitality of its inhabitants, Santiago de Cuba has played a profound role in the development of Cuba. Throughout history, the city has served as the ecclesiastical, economic, and revolutionary center of Cuba. It also has had a significant impact on the nation's cultural and, more specifically musical, development. Founded in 1514 on the eastern portion of the island by Diego Velazquez de Cuellar, Santiago de Cuba quickly established itself as an important Caribbean center due to its well-protected natural port. (5) From 1522-89, following the transfer of the seat of the Catholic Church from Baracoa to Santiago, the town matured to become the island's first colonial city, serving simultaneously as the new nation's capital. (6) Santiago's development was rapid throughout the sixteenth century. Rich in natural resources, the center progressed into an economic hub of copper, fishing, and agriculture. The location also served well for the exportation of rum, gold, and silver to neighboring islands such as Jamaica and Santo Domingo. …

The Reputation of Baroque Composers 1790-2000

We analyze the reputation of baroque composers over time. The dataset makes it possible to describe the evolution of composers' reputation and of the baroque canon. The entries in seven important musical dictionaries written between 1790 and 2000 are used to measure reputations. We provide evidence that a consensus exists between musicologists, who often rely on their predecessors' work. We also show that nationality plays a role in the judgment of musicologists. Even recent dictionaries of music seem to be biased by their nationality. These results are supported by a panel data model and by statistical tests.

The Ballet Collaborations of Richard Strauss (review)

Reviewed by: The Ballet Collaborations of Richard Strauss Morten Kristiansen The Ballet Collaborations of Richard Strauss. By Wayne Heisler. (Eastman Studies in Music, v. 64.) Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2009. (xi, 345 p. ISBN 9781580463218. $85.) Music examples, illustrations, bibliography, index. Perhaps because Richard Strauss's ballet output includes just two original scores (Josephslegende and Schlagobers) and arrangements of harpsichord works by French baroque composer François Couperin— music unfamiliar to most audiences and typically dismissed by Strauss scholars—this book is the first detailed account of Strauss's lifelong engagement with ballet. Neither a rescue mission nor a product of the current project to redefine Strauss as a modernist, Heisler's excellent and original study contributes significantly to Strauss scholarship by meticulously fleshing out the sketchy accounts of his unfinished ballets and those using Couperin arrangements, placing all the projects within the context of dance history, and—perhaps most importantly—deepening our understanding of the aesthetics and ideology behind Strauss's interest in ballet and appropriation of eighteenth-century music. The book is divided into an introduction and two parts: part 1 features chapters on Die Insel Kythere (The Isle of Cythera, 1900) and Josephslegende (The Legend of Joseph, 1914), part 2 on the Ballettsoirée (1923), Schlagobers (Whipped Cream, 1924), and Verklungene Feste: Tanzvisionen aus zwei Jahrhunderten (Bygone Celebrations: Dance Visions from Two Centuries, 1941). According to Heisler, these chapters "chronicle a gradual transformation from his modern-leaning, parodic conception of classical dance in the years leading up to World War I to a belated obsession with romantic-era ballet during World War II" (p. 6). To put Heisler's coverage in perspective, the most thorough account of Strauss's life and works, Norman Del Mar's Richard Strauss: A Critical Commentary on his Life and Works (3 vols. [London: Barrie and Rockliff, 1962-72]), spends a page and a half on Kythere, twenty-six on Josephslegende, thirteen on Schlagobers, and ten combined on the Couperin arrangements for the Ballettsoirée and Verklungene Feste (discussed as instrumental suites, not ballets). Heisler does not discuss the music comprehensively, but rather offers focused analyses to make specific points. The introduction notes the marginal status of dance in musicology, emphasizes the novelty of Heisler's multidisciplinary approach, and locates the study outside the main current of Strauss scholarship. Stating that his research centered on the genesis, premiere, and early reception of each work, he identifies his method as the book's chief asset: Perhaps the principle [sic] value of this book is the way in which Strauss's ballet collaborations . . . demand an inherently pan-disciplinary approach: the synthesis of published Strauss literature and materials . . . with unpublished and/or largely unexplored sources (scores and sketches, scenarios, production materials . . . , choreography . . . , scene and costume designs, reviews, and, if available, dance notation) in the wider context of music history and dance studies. (p. 5) The author labels his study "comfortably postrevisionist" (p. 5) and locates it outside the "revisionist" mainstream of Strauss studies seeking to elevate the composer's status from late romantic to modernist in the context of atonality and neoclassicism. This characterization of revisionism is incomplete, however. Rather than force Strauss into traditional modernist paradigms that [End Page 796] foreground musical style, "revisionism" has sought to broaden the definition of modernism to include aesthetics and other parameters. Although the opening chapter discusses ballets no one will ever experience— scenarios Strauss considered and his own unfinished Die Insel Kythere—its wide-ranging foray into virtually unexplored territory in order to explicate the meaning of ballet and the eighteenth century for Strauss in the 1890s make it the book's most original and valuable chapter. After summarizing Strauss's unrealistically complicated Kythere scenario involving eighteenth-century French aristocracy and peasants along with ancient Greece, Heisler examines scenarios by and correspondence between Strauss's would-be collaborators and the composer. Appealing to the term "classicist modernism," he concludes that they sought to rejuvenate the genre by replacing the superficial virtuosity and stories of late nineteenth-century ballet with pre-romantic dance and musical narrative dominated by set pieces. Heisler views their interest in self-conscious dance episodes and stylized classical ballet as directly influenced...

Italian strings

While the recording of sonatas and concertos for solo string instruments by Italian Baroque composers has long been a central endeavour of the early music movement, there still remain many gems to be mined, or rediscovered. The works of Francesco Geminiani (1687–1762), for instance, have recently been enjoying a revival in study and performance. Geminiani has, of course, been lauded by many generations of Baroque string players for the richness of his pedagogical legacy in treatises and exercise manuals, but only in the last few years have his serious compositions for solo violin, solo violoncello or orchestra begun to be played and recorded with any regularity. Recording of less well-known repertory often goes hand-in-hand with the availability of reliable editions, and the establishment in 2008 of a new critical edition devoted to the publication of Geminiani's complete œuvre will no doubt spur on performances and generate new interest in this...

Breaking Form through Sound: Instrumental Aesthetics, Tempête, and Temporality in the French Baroque Cantata

Abstract Between Lully's death (1687) and Rameau's operatic debut (1733), composers of the tragédie en musique experimented with instrumental effects, greatly expanding the dramatic role of the orchestra. The profusion of these effects coincides with a new aesthetic reappraisal of instrumental music in France, as can be observed in the writings of Du Bos. The tempête constitutes one of the most remarkable examples. Its sonic violence was too strong to end with the instrumental movement that depicted it; indeed, composers often prolonged the storm scene into a series of movements all connected by thematic material and key to produce a verisimilar effect of the storm's momentum, thereby creating what I term “the domino effect.” By the early eighteenth century, the tempête had become such a well established and popular topos that it began migrating to non-staged genres like the cantata. The transference of the tempest topos from the tragédie lyrique to the French baroque cantata entailed the breaking of formal frames. Unlike the supple dramatic structure of French opera, the cantata adopted the more rigid mold of the Italian opera seria—the recitative-aria unit—which separated the flow of time into active and static moments. Three case studies—Bernier's Hipolite et Aricie (1703), Jacquet de la Guerre's Jonas (1708), and Morin's Le naufrage d'Ulisse (1712)—demonstrate how composers manipulated this mold to satisfy a French aesthetic that valued temporal continuity for the sake of verisimilitude. All three composers employ key and instrumental music to portray the storm's forward momentum across recitatives and arias, relying primarily on rhythmic energy and melodic activity to create continuity. Although each composer's musical response varies according to personal style, what emerges is a shared aesthetic and compositional strategy employed to portray an event whose relentless power transcends the temporal boundaries between recitative and aria. This aesthetic of continuity and linearity shown by French baroque composers influenced the treatment of the tempest topos in the later eighteenth-century repertory, vocal and instrumental alike, including opera, the concerto, the overture-suite, and the characteristic symphony.

36. Practicing medicine and music II: Ophthalmology and music

Cecil Cameron Ewing (1925-2006) was a lecturer and head of ophthalmology at the University of Saskatchewan. Throughout his Canadian career, he was an active researcher who published several articles on retinoschisis and was the editor of the Canadian Journal of Ophthalmology. For his contributions to Canadian ophthalmology, the Canadian Ophthalmological Society awarded Ewing a silver medal. Throughout his celebrated medical career, Ewing maintained his passion for music. His love for music led him to be an active member in choir, orchestra, opera and chamber music in which he sang and played the piano, violin and viola. He was also the director of the American Liszt Society and a member for over 40 years.
 The connection between music and ophthalmology exists as early as the 18th Century. John Taylor (1703-1772) was an English surgeon who specialized in eye diseases. On the one hand, Taylor was a scientist who contributed to ophthalmology by publishing books on ocular physiology and diseases, and by advancing theories of strabismus. On the other hand, Taylor was a charlatan who traveled throughout Europe and blinded many patients with his surgeries. Taylor’s connection to music was through his surgeries on two of the most famous Baroque composers: Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) and George Frederick Handel (1685-1759). Bach had a painful eye disorder and after two surgeries by Taylor, Bach was blind. Handel had poor or absent vision prior to Taylor’s surgery, and his vision did not improve after surgery. The connection between ophthalmology and music spans over three centuries from the surgeries of Taylor to the musical passion of Ewing.
 Ewing E. Cecil Cameron Ewing. BMJ 2006; 332(7552):1278.
 Jackson DM. Bach, Handel, and the Chevalier Taylor. Med Hist 1968; 12(4):385-93.
 Zegers RH. The Eyes of Johann Sebastian Bach. Arch Ophthalmol 2005; 123(10):1427-30.

An Investigation on the Perception of Musical Style

THIS STUDY FOCUSES ON THE PROCESSING of Italian Baroque composer Giovanni Legrenzi's musical style. In a previous work, Baroni, Dalmonte, and Jacoboni (2003) elaborated a generative grammar and implemented it in a computer program called LEGRE that supposedly produces pieces in the style of Legrenzi. The main purpose of the present research is to assess whether a grammar can capture stylistic features that are relevant for stylistic categorization. Four experiments were designed to inquire into the cognitive processes involved in musical style categorization. The overall set of data was then used to evaluate whether a generative grammar could describe all of the features of a style, and to shed new light onto the cognitive processes involved in musical style perception.

Klavierwerke II: Suites de Pièces pour le Clavecin: Zweite Sammlung von 1733, HWV 434–442, and: Klavierwerke I–IV: Die acht großen Suiten, erste Sammlung von 1720; Suites de Pièces pour Clavecin, zweite Sammlung von 1733; Einzelne Suiten und Stücke, erste Folge; Einzelne Suiten und Stücke, zweite Folge (review)

Georg Friedrich Handel. Klavierwerke II: Suites de Pieces pour le Clavecin: Zweite Sammlung von 1733, HWV 434-442. Herausgegeben von Peter Northway; Neuausgabe von Terence Best. Kassel: Barenreiter, 1999. (Hallische Handel-Ausgabe; Ser. IV: Instrumentalmusik, Bd. 5.) [Editorial policy, pref., in Ger., Eng., p. vii-xxxi; facsims., p. xxxii-xxxvi; score, 133 p. Cloth. ISMN M-006-49582-5; BA 4065. euro122.] Georg Friedrich Handel. Klavierwerke II: Suites de Pieces pour le Clavecin: Zweite Sammlung von 1733, HWV 434-442. Herausgegeben von Peter Northway; Neuausgabe von Terence Best. Urtext der Hallischen Handel-Ausgabe. 7th expanded edition. Kassel: Barenreiter, 2004. [Editorial note, pref., in Ger., Eng., p. iv-xxxviii; facsims., p. xxix-xxxiii; score, 133 p. ISMN M-006-44621-6; BA 4221. euro21.95.] Georg Friedrich Handel. Klavierwerke I-IV: Die acht grosen Suiten, erste Sammlung von 1720; Suites de Pieces pour Clavecin, zweite Sammlung von 1733; Einzelne Suiten und Stucke, erste Folge; Einzelne Suiten und Stucke, zweite Folge. Kritischer Bericht von Terence Best. Kassel: Barenreiter, 2000. (Hallische Handel-Ausgabe; Ser IV: Instrumental-musik, Bd. 7.) [Abbrevs., p. 6; introduction, general survey, sources, p. 7-50; detailed notes, p. 51-146. Cloth. ISMN M-006-49584-9; BA 4067. euro113.] Editing George Frideric Handel's keyboard music is not the faint of heart. The editor of this repertory faces a number of formidable obstacles not typically encountered in the other works of Handel, nor that matter in the music of almost every other baroque composer. The crux of the problem lies in the lack of reliable sources, as the editor of this volume, Terence Best, explains in the preface to the revised second volume of Handel's keyboard suites (p. xxvi): For most of Handel's works it is possible to speak of primary sources (usually autographs), and secondary sources (copies and editions); but we cannot do so the present volume, because so few autographs have survived. The sources we have are all in effect secondary, so each individual movement it is not possible to select a principal source which has greater authority than the others. . . . Best's assessment of the difficulties in arriving at a satisfactory text is made even more specific in the separately published critical commentary in English to accompany all four volumes of Handel's harpsichord pieces (Klavierwerke) published in the Hallische Handel-Ausgabe (vol. 1: Erste Sammlung von 1720: Die acht grosen Suiten, HWV 426-433, ed. Rudolf Steglich; rev. ed., Terence Best [ser. 4, vol. 1 (1955; 1993)]; vol. 2: here under review; vol. 3: Einzelne Suiten und Stucke, ed. Best [ser. 4, vol. 6 (1970)]; vol. 4: Einzelne Suite und Stucke, zweite Folge, ed. Best [ser. 4, vol. 17 (1975)]). He tells us that autographs have survived only about a quarter of Handel's keyboard compositions, and none date before 1712, a period in which Handel wrote a large body of keyboard music. The remaining sources are either contemporary copies or printed editions. The latter materials, however, are notoriously unreliable. For example, the edition of a large collection of Handel's keyboard music (Pieces a un & deux clavecins) published in Amsterdam by Jeanne Roger (but probably supervised by John Walsh) at some point between 1719 and 1721 was so full of errors that Handel felt compelled to produce an edition of his own (Suites de pieces pour le clavecin, premier volume). This was the set of eight suites published for the Author by John Cluer in 1720. Handel was probably referring to the Roger edition when he wrote in the preface to this edition why it was necessary to offer this corrected text: I have been obliged to publish Some of the following lessons because and incorrect copies of them had got abroad (preface, p. xxii). The series of subsequent editions of Handel's keyboard music published during the next thirteen years by John Walsh, father and son, were no less Surrepticious than Roger's, and in some ways even more unreliable. …

Violons en basse as Musical Allegory

ABSTRACT An unusual type of orchestration sometimes called violons en basse is encountered in arias by French Baroque composers, including Couperin, Campra, and Rameau. In such pieces, the basse continue line is played by violins or violas notated in a high clef; the solo voice and any additional obbligato instruments remain in the treble register as well. This phenomenon has gone practically unnoticed by modern scholars and was seemingly unremarked upon by writers of the time, despite the striking color and lightness that it entails. A study of the texts of the arias in which violons are used en basse suggests that there are identifiable allegorical associations implicit in such pieces, and that they were clear to listeners of the time. Perhaps the most important and most frequent reference is to the pastoral, which is invoked by the texts and musical settings of a number of the airs. The pastoral can also be linked to the themes of peace and quiet delights present in other texts. Another important association shared with the pastoral is innocence, which is often conjoined with the idea of youth; youth is directly referred to in some texts, and also through several personages who sing them, such as Cupid (a boy), Diana (depicted in mythology as eternally young), and Hebe (the personification of youth). By identifying the allegorical use of violons en basse, we are able to add another texture and sonority to the common musical language of topics that was central to 18th-century musical rhetoric.

Bach and the Pedal Clavichord: An Organist's Guide (review)

Bach and the Pedal Clavichord: An Organist's Guide. By Joel Speerstra. Foreword by Hans Davidsson. (Eastman Studies in Music.) Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2004. [xiii, 205 p. ISBN 1-58046-135-2. $70.00.] Music examples, bibliography, illustrations, photographs, index. Despite a long and prominent history, the pedal clavichord is little known today. Its existence was first documented in the fifteenth century and its development can be traced through the ensuing centuries. Like the harpsichord, it began to fall out of favor during the nineteenth century despite significant changes to its mechanism that reflected musical tastes of the period. By the beginning of the twentieth century it had all but disappeared. Common belief holds that the instrument served mainly as an economical practice device for organists, and this reputation has contributed to the dismissive attitude of scholars regarding its place in music history. The organ music of the North German baroque composers forms the bedrock of repertoire for the instrument. It stands to reason, therefore, that this music has been dissected by performers and musicologists in search of a Rosetta Stone for baroque performance practices. A great deal of study has centered around the organs that survive from this time as well as clues contained in manuscripts and other period sources. Many organists have attempted authentic performances by employing fingerings and pedalings documented in the sources on instruments modeled on those of the period. While we will never know exactly how this music was performed in the eighteenth century, there may be a potentially rich source of insight into the physiological aspects of performing the music in an enlightened fashion today. Joel Speerstra's work presents a fascinating paradigm for the study of J. S. Bach's organ music that leads performance practice research in a new direction. In Bach and the Pedal Clavichord: An Organist's Guide, Speerstra links the technique of playing the historical pedal clavichord to that of the organ. He creatively details the intellectual and physical components of a performance practice by providing insight into the repertoire of one keyboard instrument in light of its conception and rendition on another. His work is one of a number of case studies undertaken at the Goteborg Organ Art Center (GOArt) at Goteborg University, Sweden. The purpose of GOArt is to study the art of the North and Central European organ from 1600 to 1970. The project is an interdisciplinary living workshop and involves scientists, instruments builders, musicologists, performers, documentation experts, and students. The pedal clavichord used for the present study is a reproduction of a 1766 Johann David Gerstenberg instrument now at Leipzig University. This particular instrument was chosen as a model because it represents one of the few intact, though unplayable, examples of the pedal clavichord from Bach's lifetime. Instruments built later were designed differently and they are much less musically subtle and expressive. Speerstra's intense desire to understand the instrument led him to the English builder John Barnes, curator emeritus of historical keyboard instruments at the University of Edinburgh. Under the tutelage of Barnes, Speerstra built the reproduction of the Gerstenberg instrument while gaining an intense knowledge of the nuances of its structure and the implications of this for performance. The study is divided into two parts. Part 1, Source Studies, is a review of performance theory and organology in historical documents and scholarly writings. The history of the pedal clavichord is taken up in chapter 1. Structurally, the pedal clavichord is a combination of at least three separate instruments: two (or, perhaps, three) manual keyboard instruments, and a pedal instrument. An overview of surviving early instruments is given followed by a review of the clavichord from early sources. …

Relations among Text, Mode, and Medium: Historical and Empirical Perspectives

We examined, by historical and empirical means, relations among text (positive, negative), mode (Ionian, Phrygian), and medium (organ, vocal) in settings of a popular Christian melody from the baroque era. A descriptive analysis of 51 representative settings indicated that baroque composers tended to link Ionian settings of the melody to a "salvation" text and Phrygian settings to a "condemnation" text. They also set vocal pieces more frequently in the Ionian mode and organ pieces in the Phrygian mode. A series of experiments confirmed that contemporary adult and child listeners linked reward texts to the Ionian mode and punishment texts to the Phrygian mode, with the internal cadence structure of the settings affecting such links. Moreover, adult listeners associated these texts differentially with organ and vocal settings.

Looking backwards: Baroque opera and the ending of the Orpheus myth

Vergil and Ovid, the Latin authors most widely read during the Baroque Age, presented the legend of Orpheus as ending tragically: the singer lost Eurydice forever and then endured a horrible death at the hands of the Maenads. While this version of the story was widely known throughout the Baroque Age, most operas of that period contained an altered version of the legend with a happy ending (lieto fine). Orpheus was presented as exalted into the heavens, reunited with Eurydice on earth, or at least consoled for his sufferings by the god Apollo. An examination of Poliziano’sOrfeo (1480), Jacopo Peri’sEuridice (1600), Claudio Monteverdi’sLa favola di Orfeo (1607), Luigi Rossi’sOrfeo (1647), and Christoph Willibald Gluck’sOrfeo ed Euridice (1762) suggests that many different reasons—artistic, musical, social, and sometimes even personal—explain why Baroque composers so frequently changed the ending of this myth. Surveying those reasons is important because it helps to clarify the relationship between Baroque opera and Italian pastoral poetry. Additionally, such an analysis provides insight into the Baroque approach to the classical tradition as a whole.

Music and Sense in Handel's Setting of Milton's L'Allegro and Il Penseroso

MORE THAN ANY OTHER BAROQUE COMPOSER, Handel has provided us with fortunate conjunctions of music and English poetry. Among his successful unions of voice and verse, none is more ambitious in its attempt to advance poetic meaning than his setting of Milton's L'Allegro and II Penseroso. But even to recognize such ambition, to employ music to advance the meaning of a text, compels us to acknowledge our distance from what the eighteenth century understood to be the power of music in conveying extramusical meaning. To modern judgment, nothing is more surprising than the confidence with which seventeenthand eighteenth-century discussions of music assert its ability to portray a reality outside of itself. Not only emotions and states of mind but often landscapes and even ideas are held to be accurately depicted in musical compositions. Music is an abstract art, modern theory objects, and its elements do not signify outside of the patterns and structures into which they are set. A theme or a melody may suggest a certain emotional state about which listeners may generally agree. But even music with a program works toward impression rather than specific meaning, and the necessity of its accompaniment by verbal description perhaps betrays most tellingly the abstract nature of the art itself. Music achieves its effects by a psychologically complex process of alternately fulfilling, suspending, and exceeding a listener's expectations. This process may be said to involve making sense, but only metaphorically, as sense here would mean conforming in some way to the auditory structures which the music itself leads the

Bowed Continuo Instruments in French Baroque Chamber Music

French Baroque composers, like their counterparts all over Europe, regarded the bass viol, the cello, the bassoon and, in some circumstances, the double bass as suitable sustaining continuo instruments. The choice of one or another, or a combination, depended no less upon circumstances than it did on the desire for a specific stylistic nuance or timbre. In this paper I propose to examine the evidence – in memoirs and other accounts, and in manuscript and printed scores – that documents the rise and decline of the bass viol and the emergence of the cello as a chamber music instrument. The nature of the musical evidence is often contradictory in itself, but ultimately it is indicative of a larger process, of which the use of the viol and the cello were a significant part: the assimilation of Italian genres into the French musical idiom.

Barok in skladatelji 20. stoletja

Barok in skladatelji 20. stoletja