Bare Necessities Research Articles

Deposition thickness based high-throughput nano-imprint template

International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors 2003 projected nano-imprint lithography has the potential of high throughput, sub-20 nm resolution, and low cost [S.Y. Chou, P.R. Krauss, P.J. Renstrom, Appl. Phys. Lett. 67 (1995) 3144; Science 272 (1996) 85, J.A. Rogers, C. Mirkin, Mater. Res. Bull. 26 (2001)]. For nano-imprint lithography, a template with 1X resolution is required. The existing industrial infrastructure for supporting deep ultra violet 4X photo masks by e-beam and/or a laser beam scanning writer does not offer pitch (center-to-center distance of an array of patterned lines) less than ∼60 nm [ <http://public.itrs.net/2003ITRS>]. For nano-imprint lithography to be accepted across the industry, a reproducible simple fabrication process to make a high resolution, single emboss template is essential [L. Jay Guo, J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 37 (2004) R123–R141]. Here we show, a general fabrication method and fabricated nano-imprint templates with sub-15 nm template line width and 10 nm pitch length through out the entire 200 mm wafer, varying the deposition thickness of multiple alternate films, using atomic layer deposition. Although multilayer nano-imprint templates and their exciting use have been demonstrated, [W.J. Dauksher et al., J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 22 (2004) 3306, B. Heidari, et al., The 49th international conference on electron, ion and photon beam technology and nanofabrication, Orlando, Florida, 2005, William M. Tong, et al., Proc. SPIE 5751 (2005) 46–55, N.A. Melosh, A. Boukai, F. Diana, B. Gerardot, A. Badolato, P.M. Petroff, J.R. Heath, Science 300 (2003) 112] such a small pitch was not shown and either complex lattice mismatch-based epitaxially grown films or unconventional etch chemistry was used. The bare necessity was a simple and economical fabrication process for a high throughput nano-imprint template. In that context, we have developed a template fabrication process using classical micro-fabrication techniques. Successful use of these techniques made the template fabrication process simple, economical, and expedient. Also a novel technique to provide flexible and accurate alignment for nanowire patterning has been described. In this technique, nanowire patterning is accomplished on the entire wafer with a single impression. Industry level batch-fabrication of our scheme illustrates its reproducibility and manufacturability. We anticipate, this simple, economical and time saving technique will help researchers and developers to perform their experiment on nano-scale feature patterned substrates easily and conveniently.

Organization of a Regional Hemodialysis Center

The paper presents a concept of formation and development of interregional, regional, and equated centers, interregional specialized units set up on the basis of therapeutic-and-prophylactic institutions on the basis of a multileveled multistage health care system. Large multidisciplinary clinical hospital One (Novokuznetsk) was used as an example to consider the mechanism of integration of innovation technology of organizing a specialized medical aid. Analysis of the needs of the region’s population for dialysis care for patients with acute and chronic renal failure has revealed the barest necessity of setting up a regional hemodyalisis center under a multidisciplinary clinical hospital. The setting up of a hemodialysis center substantially has quantitatively and qualitatively improved health care delivered to patients with acute and chronic renal failure.

Motion and Environment Error Compensation for Ultra-Precision Lathe

Recently, the demand for Ultra-precision products is rapidly increasing, especially in such industries as semi-conductors, computers, aerospace, and precision machinary. Ultra-precision processing is also extremely needed for NT in the field of mechanical engineering. Lately, together with drastic advancement of electronic and photonics industry, the need of Ultra-precision processing is increased in the manufacturing of various kernel parts, which are connected with these industrial fields. Especially, motion accuracy to nanometers is required in order in stroke of hundreds millimeters according as the diameter of the processed object great and the processing accuracy rises. In this case, the response speed absolute delay due to inertial mass of the moving parts is very large. Therefore, real-time motion error compensation becomes the barest necessity. In this paper, we used ultra-precision cutting unit (UPCU) to cope with the problem. A special UPCU was designed and tested to obtain sub-micrometer from accuracy in diamond turning of flat surfaces. The thermal growth spindle error was compensated in real time using the UPCU driven by piezoelectric actuator along with a laser encoder displacement sensor.

This Side of the Mountain

This Side of the Mountain jobs because he could not stand to be patronized. Emma Bell Miles, herself, came from a third class, the middle class, her parents both schoolteachers. Because her life touched all three classes, she was acutely aware of these various lifestyles. Even the most cursory glance at the life of Emma Bell Miles raises an important question: how could anyone so talented in so many different ways as Emma Bell Miles have lived as she did, ill-housed, ill-fed, and often devoid of even the bare necessities while her art, her literature and her scholarship were adding layers of meaning, and even refinement, to people of all classes of society. Of course her individual circumstances must be taken into account. Both her husband and her father were often over-bearing, insensitive and unhelpful. Their personal problems were exacerbated by a sexist society which tended to reinforce their negative traits and discourage their positive impulses. Further, Emma Bell Miles herself, seriously ill much of her adult life, did not always respond to adversity in the most constructive manner. Nevertheless, I believe any attempt to understand the contradictions in the life of Emma Bell Miles needs to take into account four factors beyond individual circumstances and gender inequity. First, I believe that the poverty of Emma Bell Miles was at least partially a by-product of the class structure of society and class chauvinism. Many of the privileged, then as now, remain incredibly insensitive to the needs of the poor. Indeed, there are those among the rich and powerful who tend to feel particularly threatened by those from lower classes who are more talented than they are. Whether Emma Bell Miles was directly exploited may be a matter for conjecture, but obviously, she lacked the wherewithal to make the kind of contacts necessary for material success. Second, the life of Emma Bell Miles was full of suffering because of a health care delivery system which remains, even one hundred years later, completely out-of-step with the affluence of our society as a whole. Adequate health care, both for her physical ailments and for her depression, and for the rest of her family as well, could have made a huge difference, and it could for thousands of others today as well. Third, Emma Bell Miles suffered from inadequate institutional support. Much credit belongs to Lincoln Memorial University for making her author-in-residence for a semester and to Tusculum College for inviting her to lecture. Meanwhile, other institutions feted the already materially successful and sometimes turned their backs on important writers who weren't literally so "well-established." Fourth, we remain a society which offers inadequate support for expectant mothers, children, and their families. Other regional writers, for example, Byron Herbert Reece and Janice Holt Giles, lived at times at a subsistence level, but the difficulties that Emma and Frank Miles experienced were multiplied many times over because they were trying to raise a family while dealing with poverty, health problems and class issues. Now as then, parents who are raising the next generation of citizens deserve greater support from the society as a whole. Allfour of these problems are over one hundred years old, but they still persist. Today many "independent scholars" still contribute substantially, some living at subsistence levels, as do some artists, writers andsmallbusinessowners. Foryears,myownfamilytriedtoeekout a living as booksellers specializing in Appalachia while raising seven children. We will always appreciate the support and understanding, for example, of Grace Toney Edwards who was the only academic whose institution paid us each year to come to her campus. Some improvements have been made in the last hundred years. How glorious programs such as food stamps and TennCare would have been to the Miles family, but we still need to fight against class chauvinism, for decent health care and for support to families with children as well as for institutional support for struggling artists, writers and scholars. This support should be based on the contributions made, not just titles and formal credentials earned. Emma Bell Miles , Age 21 ...

Be more open minded on bare necessities

Be more open minded on bare necessities

Mechanisms for hypoxia detection in O2-sensitive cells.

Since O(2) is the bare necessity for multicellular organisms, they develop multiple protective mechanisms against hypoxia. Mammals will adapt to hypoxia in short and long terms. The short-term responses include enhancement of the respiratory and cardiac functions, adrenaline secretion from adrenal medullary cells, and pulmonary vasoconstriction, whereas the long-term response is the increase in erythropoietin production with the consequent increase in red blood cells. Although much work has been done to elucidate molecular mechanisms for O(2)-sensing for the last ten years, the majority of the mechanisms remain unclear. We will review mechanisms proposed for hypoxia detection in carotid body type I cells, pulmonary artery smooth muscle, adrenal medullary cells, and liver cells, with the special focus on adrenal medullary cells.

Model of economic-financial development of a non-state dental clinic

The main task of non-state dental clinics is an active promotion of its’ services in the market. This thesis determines the typical models of market behavior. However, the making of dental service market is accompanied with a number of problems and their solution is a most important task of non-state dental clinic managers. The development of dental clinics in modern conditions requires significant financial investment — into the purchase of building or facilities, purchase of modern equipment and staff training as well as advertising. Attracting of investment or long-term bank credits becomes the barest necessity. Forming of clinic attractiveness for investment for clinic development should be realized on the base of competent business-plan elaboration of a clinic development that demonstrates evidently the specific advantages of the project, the degree of risk, payback and profitability.

Fungi and the bare necessities of life

Sometimes progress in mycology is so significant that it contributes to understanding in the wider scientific arena. To reflect this, an ad hoc series of articles will be published in the Mycologist outlining examples of when this has occurred. This, the first of these articles, examines work by Katinka and co-workers who have published a summary of findings about the genetic code (genome sequence) of the fungal parasite Encephalitozoon cuniculi ( Nature 414: 450-453; 22/11/2001). Katinka et al . found that although fungi are complex organisms, the cellular machinery required to make a fungus can be very simple.

Prospects and expectations: reflections on a science in change

I use “prospects” to connote the continuing subversion of the environment. “Expectations” refer to what I think Statistics should be making of itself in the era of global change science. I develop thoughts on these in three main sections. In the first, I recount up-to-date information about global warming. This topic is intriguing to me, since global warming is potentially the most subversive environmental process, appears least preventable, and as such, most deserving to be a focal point in ecological study scenarios. In the second section, I discuss briefly the ecological agenda and the implications therein for definition of the sampling environment. The third and last large section explains how I think of what should constitute an applicable statistical dialect for users in global change science. I detail the basic principles, enumerate choices, and deal with other bare necessities upon which such a Statistics should be founded.

THE FORM OF THE SELF: "ANCRENE WISSE" AND ROMANCE

How can you be together to bear witness to secrecy, seperation, singularity? (Derrida)1 It is difficult to separate the self from the world. To lock oneself away, to give away everything one owns, to think of nothing but the hereafter, is still to be somewhere, to have senses that perceive, and to be in an environment that `consists of opportunities for perception, of available information, of potential stimuli'.2 Marx, a man who thought more than most about the insistence of the world's matter, knew this well, and he warned that even the `unrelated, self-sufficient' being stood poised to rediscover `sensuous reality': Each of his senses compels him to believe in the existence of the world and the individuals outside him and even his profane stomach reminds him every day that the world outside him is not empty, but what is really fulfilling. Every activity and property of his being, every one of his vital urges becomes a need, a necessity, which his self-seeking transforms into seeking for other things and human beings outside him.3 Even those medieval Christians who retreated into the 'desert' made this painful discovery: monks and nuns tried to form communities so selfsufficient that they had no need to leave them, but they therefore came together in order to be apart. Women monastics had such problems attaining this sufficiency that it was usually `bare necessity, not slack morals' which turned them back to the world for physical sustenance.5 Similarly, while an anchorite received `prayers for the dying' on entering his or her cell (`ad impositionem defuncti super feretrum') and then had that cell `blocked up' ('obstruatur hostium domus eius),6 it was equally necessary for that anchorite to remain `part of the fabric of the community in which he or she lived'.' Anchoritic rules emphasized spiritual solitude rather than physical isolation, and they required rather than prohibited contact with those clergy, visitors, and servants who kept the anchorite spiritually and physically well. As a result, many an anchorhold formed 'a kind of centre in village life', a locus for a `spiritual commitment [which] paradoxically evoked a flurry of worldly activity'.8 Ancrene Wisse (1215-21) is a particularly good witness to the last aspect of these general tensions.9 It is clear that the three women for whom this rule was written actually lived with each other in a single dwelling;10 they were encouraged to invite those who gave them assistance to stay with them ('leadiecl to herbarhin'), and they were enjoined to keep at least two women servants ('beoo bisie twa wummen'.11 This 'solitude' was further crowded by new recruits over the years, and the resulting group of 'solitary' women finally grew so great in number (to `twenti ... over ma') that it became appropriate to characterize them as a 'community' ('cuuentD (fol. 69a).12 Ancrene Wisse also reflects a relationship between its author and these anchoresses which was clearly more than rhetorical: while the hortatory pose was common enough in anchoritic rules,13 the author of Ancrene lisse clearly knew the anchoresses prior to their enclosure (Ant ge mine leoue sustren habbep moni dei icrauet on me after riwle' (fol. ia)), and he saw them frequently afterwards as their 'director' and 'confessor'.14 In fact, in this way as in so many others, Ancrene Wisse offers a particularly vivid illustration of the paradoxes inherent in the solitary life because it tended to convert them into a strikingly textual form: although it is a document that recommends the solitary life by describing just how good it is to be alone (`hu god is to beon ane' (fol. 4ib)), it is clear that the very success of this recommendation served, first and foremost, to bring people together. Form, as the title of this essay indicates, is the particular aspect of this textual phenomenon that I wish to examine, and what I hope to demonstrate is the extent to which Ancrene Wisse's textual version of solitude's problems actually led to textual solutions: if this text is riven by the paradoxes of solitary living it is precisely because these paradoxes produced this text. …

From Feminism to Biblical Criticism: The Theological Trajectory of Francois Poulain de la Barre

From Feminism To Biblical Criticism: The Theological Trajectory of François Poulain de la Barre Siep Stuurman (bio) More Christians have perished by the hands of Christians than by the hands of the Heathen & Infidels. —François Poulain de la Barre, 1720. Fifteen years ago, Richard Popkin observed that the application of the Cartesian standard of true philosophical knowledge to the study of the Bible was one of the major intellectual innovations of the late seventeenth century. Popkin’s chief examples were Spinoza, Isaac la Peyrière, and John Toland, as well as Catholic polemicists such as Richard Simon and Pierre Nicole, and liberal Calvinists like Jean Leclerc. 1 All these authors had their own, highly particular reasons to engage in a critical examination of Scripture. In this paper I will discuss yet another road to a critical theology, related to several of those just mentioned, but also quite distinct from them inasmuch as it was motivated in the first place by the attempt to refute the Scriptural objections to the equality of the sexes. The author in question, François Poulain de la Barre (Paris, 1647 - Geneva, 1723), was a former Sorbonne student of theology who had embraced Cartesianism. 2 What makes Poulain’s theological trajectory particularly intriguing is that he moved from Sorbonne theology to Cartesianism and egalitarian feminism, and then to Genevan Calvinism after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, and finally to the brink of Deism. Poulain’s feminism was part of a broader Cartesian social philosophy, in which he applied Descartes’s radical doubt to the social conventions of his age, argued that the mind, being noncorporeal, “has no sex,” and put to use the egalitarian elements in [End Page 367] Cartesian epistemology, as well as the notion of natural equality found in the discourse of Natural Jurisprudence, in order to subvert the legitimacy of social inequality. 3 His Cartesian-feminist treatises, published in the 1670s, are now fairly well-known, but his audacious theological opinions have received but scant attention, 4 perhaps because in his early books theology is not discussed as a separate subject. However, in 1720, toward the end of his life, Poulain devoted an entire book-length treatise to the interpretation of Scripture, which has to my knowledge never been discussed in the historiography of Biblical criticism. A brief survey of Poulain’s life can throw some light on the sources of his theological interests. 5 As a schoolboy, he embarked on a church career and, in 1666, obtained a bachelor’s degree in theology at the Sorbonne. Shortly thereafter he left the university; this was not unusual because the great majority of the clergy did not pursue their university education beyond the bachelor’s degree. 6 Poulain, however, turned away from scholastic philosophy once and for all. He later complained that his education had left him with “empty names” instead of real knowledge, a complaint frequently made by dissatisfied university students in those days. We shall see, however, that he made good use of his theological knowledge during the rest of his life. In the next decade, Poulain published the three Cartesian-feminist treatises referred to above, which are generally judged the most radical and egalitarian published in Europe before the eighteenth century: De l’Égalité des deux Sexes (1673), De l’Éducation des Dames (1674), and De l’Excellence des Hommes (1675), a mock refutation of himself, followed by a firm rebuttal of his own “refutation.” 7 For all we know, Poulain was not able to make a living as an author, even though his books were reissued several times. 8 In February 1679, he acceded to the priesthood and shortly thereafter he left Paris to become a village priest in northern France. Poulain’s decision to take holy orders can hardly be explained in terms of his previous intellectual trajectory. Nor does his move from Paris to a remote village appear as a logical or desirable one for an enterprising intellectual such as Poulain, except for the bare necessity to make a living. 9 From 1680 to 1688, Poulain served as a village priest. In 1688 he left his last charge, in the tiny hamlet of Versigny...

Communicative skills—A matter of negligence?

Communicative skills—A matter of negligence?

Humanitarian Action and Conflict

Love does no wrong to a neighbour; therefore love is the fulfilling of the law. Romans 13:10 In the eyes of many people, humanitarian aid has lost much of its moral currency. Once an undisputed symbol of solidarity with those struck down by misfortune and adversity, humanitarian assistance is now vilified by many as part of the problem, feeding fighters, strengthening perpetrators of genocide, creating new war economies, fuelling conflicts and perpetuating crises. Clare Short(f.1)IntroductionThe role of conflict in creating humanitarian needs has been much studied and is reasonably well understood. Until recently, the reverse relationship -- the positive and negative impact of humanitarian action on processes of conflict -- has drawn less attention. However, it is increasingly seen as an important dimension of analysis and of the design of humanitarian response to complex emergencies.Humanitarian action is guided by the principles of neutrality (regarding the political and military objectives of parties in conflict), proportionality (regarding the distribution of help), and independence (from the political agendas of international organizations and states). The legal points of reference are article 3.1 of the Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War of 12 August 1949, which states that 'persons taking no active part in hostilities shall in all circumstances be treated humanely, without any adverse distinction founded on race, colour, religion or faith, sex, birth or wealth, or any other similar criteria,' and article 7.1-2 of the 1997 Protocol Additional to the Convention Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts under which 'all the wounded, sick, and shipwrecked shall be respected and protected. In all circumstances they shall be treated humanely and shall receive, to the fullest extent practicable and with the least possible delay, the medical care and attention required by their condition.'(f.2)The Geneva convention attempts to draw a clear line between politics and the purposes and conduct of war, on the one hand, and assistance to victims, on the other. The latter is to proceed independently of the former; and political and military actors are prohibited under both conventions from impeding the humanitarian work covered in their provisions.(f.3) This point was articulated clearly by the director of international law and communications of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) ,Yves Sandoz: 'Persuasion based on refraining from making any judgment as to the origin of the conflict, and action inspired by the elementary principles of humanitarian law -- the distinction between combatants and civilians, treatment for the wounded, respect for the physical integrity and dignity of detainees, aid for populations lacking the bare necessities -- all this will remain, for many years to come, the only way to conduct humanitarian operations in most situations of armed conflict.'(f.4)However, the context of modern conflict and humanitarian emergency poses numerous and substantial difficulties for those adhering to the principles of neutrality, impartiality, independence, and discrimination. Whatever the motives of humanitarian actors, their actions in today's conditions have significant political implications, and what they do is viewed politically. In particular, many believe that what they do may have important implications for the course of the conflict.The subject is fraught with controversy. Recognition of the connection between humanitarian action and conflict makes many humanitarians uncomfortable because it casts ambiguity upon the humanitarian imperative. In the abstract, the rights of the victim and the obligations of others to help are paramount. But many argue that evaluation of humanitarian action must focus not merely on motive but also on consequence, including unintended consequence. …

Economic Growth and Basic Human Needs

An enduring debate in the political economy of development turns upon the question of whether trade-offs exist between economic growth and the equitable provision of basic human needs (such as adequate nutrition, shelter, and education) in poor areas. Much of the empirical work on this growth-welfaredebate has supported the argument that improvements in basic welfare and enhanced economic performance are mutually reinforcing processes. But if the relationships between improved welfare and factors of growth have been fruitfully examined, the effects of growth and growth-oriented policies upon subsequent levels of poverty and inequality are less clear. In a past issue of this journal, political scientists Bruce E. Moon and William J. Dixon argue that higher rates of economic growth do not improve a nation's ability to meet the basic needs of its population. However, two problems undermine Moon and Dixon's analysis and cast doubt upon the accuracy of their conclusions. I address this concern, constructing and estimating a dynamic model of the impact of growth upon basic welfare that tries to account for these problems. The findings confirm Moon and Dixon's general conclusion, but suggest that the impact of growth-related factors upon basic needs outcomes may be less enduring than they had supposed, with beneficial consequences of either positive externalities or effective government intervention (or both) soon outweighing any detrimental effects of sustained growth. Do trade-offs exist between economic growth and the equitable provision of basic human needs in poor areas? Basic human needs are material and social requirements of human functioning, such as minimum levels of nutrition, shelter, and education. Although these requirements may differ across regions and cultures,1 similar conditions tend to prevail in areas where these needs-whatever they may be-are poorly met: life expectancy is generally low, infant mortality rates are high, and the scope of human activity is limited for most people to meeting the bare necessities of day-to-day survival. Such widespread destitution will have adverse effects on labor productivity, and will preclude the possibility of private savings and investment for much of the population. These conditions can trap a nation or region within a vicious circle of increasing demands upon resources and institutions and a diminishing capacity of the material and institutional environments to meet these demands.

The Impact of the Economic Embargo on Iraqi Families: Re-structuring of Tribes, Socio-Economic Classes and Households

The economic embargo imposed on Iraq since 2 August 1990 has had profound effects on Iraqi family life. This paper attempts to explore these effects, concentrating on the ways in which families are coping with the stifling pressures of the embargo. People have been compelled to resort to a variety of channels and strategies in their hard struggle for survival. Economic problems - including the ever-present threat of hunger - are the most prominent features in the embargo panorama. This paper also describes the decline of collective sentiments, a decline which the embargo has laid the ground for. The enormous difficulties of living have sapped peoples emotional reserves and have thereby weakened their social ties. Families either use whatever money they make to buy the bare necessities of life or stockpile it; they no longer devote any economic resources to the maintenance of social ties. The decline in sociability since the beginning of the embargo has affected and is affected by individual morale. Sometimes people have responded to the embargo as if it were a challenge, while at other times they vacillate between hope and despair. A third point covered by the paper is the effect of the embargo on socio-economic stratification. The withdrawal of wealth from the kinds of social activities which formerly required large expenditures - and which continually reconstructed social relations - has been accompanied by an increasing economic polarization between the poor and the wealthy. Old, respected urban families with centuries of prestige and family traditions have become impoverished and must devote all of their resources to the struggle for survival. At the same time, a few uneducated rural families enjoy unprecedented prosperity.. This coupling of elite family decline with the rapid rise of certain rural families is a phenomenal paradox that has been brought on by the embargo. The distorted and lopsided social mobility is perceived by many Iraqis as chaotic and disorienting.

Seeking life's bare (genetic) necessities.

Cold Spring Harbor, New York—At the recent genome meeting here, researchers homed in on a fundamental question: What's the minimum number of genes needed for a simple organism to survive? Two presentations used contrasting approaches and came up with only slightly different estimates. One group found that 250 genes is the minimum for a modern organism, while another team estimated that 800 genes is enough to do the job.

Mits of energy utilization in EB radiation processing

Utilization of energy in EB processing is determined primarily by the yield of electrical energy transformation, resulting from the particular construction of the machine. The basic ratio of power in the beam to the input power cannot be changed. However, on the users side, the use of energy may be improved by pushing the ratio of maximum dose to minimum in the object, to the highest acceptable value and limiting the idle work of the accelerator (tuning, dosimetry, development of irradiation technology) to the bare necessity.

The Protection of Human Rights in the European Union: Overview and Bibliography

The treaties establishing the European Communities (“EC”) are virtually silent on the protection of human rights. Some earlier, more ambitious plans for European integration, the European Defense Community and the draft Statute of a European Political Community, dealt with the issue to some extent. However, these plans had failed and the EC founding fathers wanted to confine the treaty to the bare necessities of an economic community. They probably also thought that as the scope of Community law was essentially limited to economic and technical issues, human rights problems would not occur. Judicial practice would prove the contrary.

“The bare necessities:” Standards of living in England and the Chesapeake, 1650–1700

The domestic environment had a profound influence on the texture of everyday life in early modern England and America not only in terms of family interaction but also as a tangible reflection of broader social attitudes towards hierarchy, status and consumerism. This article compares standards of living in England and the Chesapeake between 1650 and 1700. Three regions are analyzed in detail: the Vale of Berkeley, Gloucestershire; St. Mary’s County, Maryland; and part of the Northern Neck of Virginia. It is argued that a comparison of material culture and living standards reveals important aspects of the advantages and disadvantages of emigrating from England to the Chesapeake, and suggests significant differences between the two societies in this period.

The Domestic Architecture and Cabinetry of Luther Valley

by CLAIRE SELKURT 8 The Domestic Architecture and Cabinetry of Luther Valley WHEN today, ONE it is visits not difficult Luther to Valley, understand Wisconsin, the attoday , it is not difficult to understand the attraction this area had for the earliest Norwegian settlers. The gently rolling hills, the clusters of woods, the dark earth, and the well-kept farm structures all reflect a successful farming community. The earliest settlers came from a dramatically different setting - the region of Numedal, which is marked by strong contrasts in topography . The Lägen River slashes deeply into that valley. Farms seem barely to cling to the sloping contours of the land. The brilliant green ground-covering is pierced by the jagged rocks that make up a good part of the barren soil. The fir trees and the wooden farm structures create striking silhouettes against the often leaden, mist-filled sky. One senses the tenacious will to survive that must have marked the day-to-day existence of these people. Emigration to the Wisconsin frontier brought with it a considerable change in their way of life. The purpose of this article is to recreate aspects of that life, based upon both extant and recorded evidence of the 247 Claire Seikurt material culture, the buildings and furniture of Luther Valley during the early period of settlement, as well as to show the persistence of certain Norwegian traditions. By the late 1830s there were important reasons for the future founders of Luther Valley to consider leaving their homeland. The motivations were both religious and economic in nature. Gullik Gravdal, a Haugean and one of the founders of the settlement, addressed both of these issues in an interview many years later, saying that the great majority of those who emigrated from Numedal in 1839 belonged to the Haugeans. "We were not actually persecuted . . . but the 'readers' were the subject of much hostile gossip and we had to endure ridicule and scorn on the part of those who did not share our views. . . . [However] the hope of finding cheap, fertile land together with reports about good wages were definitely the determining factors for most of us." 1 For many of the famers in Numedal the effort to make a decent living had become a desperate struggle. Another early settler, Gullik Knudsen Springen, wrote: "Income from farming provided us with only the barest necessities ." In return for farm labor "I could expect nothing but food and clothing. . . . When I began to think seriously of the future, the idea of emigrating occurred to me."2 It was not surprising then that Ansten Nattëstad , who returned to Numedal in the fall of 1838 from an exploratory journey that had taken him as far west as Chicago, found an eager and receptive audience. Gullik Gravdal reported that Ansten's return created about the same sensation a dead man might cause if he returned to tell of life beyond the grave.3 Early in June of 1839 the Nattestad party assembled in Drammen. There were approximately 140 people in the group, most of them from Rollaug and Veggli iii northern Numedal. They set sail on June 12 on the Emilie and arrived in New York on August 26. The 248 LUTHER VALLEY CRAFTSMANSHIP settlers took the usual route to the West, traveling up the Hudson River, then by way of the Erie Canal to Buffalo, and through the Great Lakes to Chicago. The majority of the group followed Ansten Nattestad to Jefferson Prairie, but two of them, Gullik Gravdal and Gisle S. Halland, were dissatisfied with the Jefferson Prairie site and settled in Rock Prairie, about seven miles west of the present city of Beloit, Wisconsin, founding the settlement of Luther Valley. In the softly rolling hills and valleys of the area they found the land they had been seeking. The settlement grew fairly rapidly. By the fall of 1840 five Norwegians had bought land in the area and the following fall another contingent of several families arrived directly from Norway. The decade of the 1840s was an active period of settlement in the area. Emigrants from other parts of Norway joined the original group which had come from Numedal, people from...