Baltic Sea Beaches Research Articles

Emission, Transport, and Deposition of visible Plastics in an Estuary and the Baltic Sea\u2014a Monitoring and Modeling Approach

Aimwas to assess whether a comprehensive approach linking existing knowledge with monitoring and modeling can provide an improved insight into coastal and marine plastics pollution. We focused on large micro- and mesoplastic (1–25 mm) and selected macroplastic items. Emission calculations, samplings in the Warnow river and estuary (water body and bottom sediments) and a flood accumulation zone monitoring served as basis for model simulations on transport and behavior in the entire Baltic Sea. Considered were the most important pathways, sewage overflow and stormwater. The coastline monitoring together with calculations allowed estimating plastics emissions for Rostock city and the Warnow catchment. Average concentrations at the Warnow river mouth were 0.016 particles/m³ and in the estuary 0.14 particles/m³ (300 µm net). The estuary and nearby Baltic Sea beaches were hot-spots for plastic accumulation with 6–31 particles/m². With increasing distance from the estuary, the concentrations dropped to 0.3 particles/m². This spatial pattern, the plastic pollution gradients and the observed annual accumulation values were consistent with the model results. Indicator items for sewer overflow and stormwater emissions exist, but were only found at low numbers in the environment. The considered visible plastics alone can hardly serve as indicator for microplastic pollution (<1 mm). The use of up-scaled emission data as input for Baltic Sea model simulations provided information on large scale emission, transport and deposition patterns of visible plastics. The results underline the importance of plastic retention in rivers and estuaries.

Efficiency of Aerial Drones for Macrolitter Monitoring on Baltic Sea Beaches

Marine litter is a global problem that requires soon management and design of mitigation strategies. Marine litter monitoring is an essential step to assess the abundances, distributions, sinks and hotspots of pollution as well as the effectiveness of mitigation measures. However, these need to be time and cost-efficient, fit for purpose and context, as well as provide a standardized methodology suitable for comparison among surveys. In Europe, the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) provides a structure for the effective implementation of long-term monitoring. For beaches, the well-established 100 m OSPAR macrolitter monitoring exists. However, this method requires a high staff effort and suffers from a high spatio-temporal variability of the results. In this study, we test the potential of aerial drones or Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) together with a Geographic Information System approach for semi-automatic classification of meso- (1–25 mm) and macrolitter (&amp;gt;25 mm) at four beaches of the southern Baltic Sea. Visual screening of drone images in recovery experiments (50 m2 areas) at 10 m height revealed an accuracy of 99%. The total accuracy of classification using object-based classification was 45–90% for the classification with four classes and 50–66% for the classification with six classes, depending on the algorithm and flight height used. On 100 m beach monitoring transects the accuracy was between 39–74% (4 classes) and 25–74% (6 classes), with very low kappa values, indicating that the GIS classification method cannot be regarded as a reliable method for the detection of litter in the Southern Baltic. In terms of cost-efficiency, the drone method showed high reproducibility and moderate accuracy, with much lower flexibility and quality of data than a comparable spatial-OSPAR method. Consequently, our results suggest that drone based monitoring cannot be recommended as a replacement or complement existing methods in southern Baltic beaches. However, drone monitoring could be useful at other sites and other methods for image analysis should be tested to explore this tool for fast-screening of non-accessible sites, fragile ecosystems, floating litter or heavily polluted beaches.

Marine Litter Pollution in Baltic Sea Beaches – Application of the Sand Rake Method

Most marine litter monitoring methods used on beaches focus on macro-litter (&amp;gt;25 mm) only and show shortcomings regarding smaller litter classes (&amp;lt;25 mm), especially at Baltic Sea beaches. Therefore, we used a sand rake method developed for large micro- (2–5 mm), and meso- (5–25 mm) litter to quantify the overall pollution status of Baltic Sea beaches and to test if the method is useful in terms of the requirements of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD). Between July 2017 and October 2019, 197 sand rake method surveys were carried out at 35 regions around the Baltic Sea. In total, 9345 litter pieces were found on an area of 10,271 m2 of which 69.9% were 2–25 mm in size. Artificial polymers (4921 litter pieces) were predominant (mean 52.7% ± 13.3). Abundance of litter was 0.91 pieces/m2 ± 1.50 (median 0.40 pieces/m2). The most common litter were industrial pellets (19.8%), non-identifiable plastic pieces 2–25 mm (17.3%), cigarette butts (15.3%), and paraffin (11.9%). At 15 surveys at the German North Sea island of Sylt the litter abundance ranged from 0.45 pieces/m2 (median) to 0.59 pieces/m2 ± 0.37 (mean). Here, 69.2% of the litter was 2–25 mm in size and paraffin was predominant (69.2%). Beaches show a high pollution level with large micro- and meso-litter (2–25 mm) and our data can serve as a Baltic-wide pollution baseline. In contrast to the naked eye OSPAR method for macro-litter, the sand rake method is generally applicable on all sandy beaches, both urban and remote. This method also allows for the provision of a full spatial pollution pattern and can serve for assessing the effectiveness of marine litter mitigation measures.

Cigarette butts on Baltic Sea beaches: Monitoring, pollution and mitigation measures

OSPAR, Rake and Flood accumulation zone methods were applied at 29 beaches of the German and Lithuanian Baltic Sea coast (2011–2018) to monitor cigarette butt pollution. Also, butt pollution prevention measure - ballot bin, was tested.The number of cigarette butts was significantly higher in Germany than in Lithuania, but the percent of butts from total litter items was similar. Rake method turned out to be suitable for cigarette butt assessment, while the OSPAR method underestimates the butt pollution.The visitor number on the beach had a significant effect on the cigarette butt number: in remote beaches, without visitors, usually, no butts were observed, while the highest number and the percent of butts were observed in beaches with the highest number of visitors.The ballot bin campaign may have increased the public awareness about pollution, but turned out to be in-efficient in reducing it.

Cost-effective monitoring of large micro- and meso-litter in tidal and flood accumulation zones at south-western Baltic Sea beaches.

Often, beach litter monitoring strategies focus only on macro-litter (>25 mm) and do not distinguish between litter left at beaches and litter washed up onshore. We tested inexpensive and user-friendly methods to examine meso-litter (5-25 mm) and large micro-litter (2-5 mm) washed up on German sandy beaches and evaluated our methods regarding the requirements of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive. With a sieve accumulation zone monitoring method, tested 41 times, we found 0.2-21.2 litter pieces/m2 (⌀ 5.3 pieces/m2 ± 8.9). With a bare eye accumulation zone monitoring method, tested 10 times, at other beaches, 9.1-65.6 litter pieces/m2 (⌀ 31.8 pieces/m2 ± 15.7) were found. Both methods are inexpensive, useful for volunteers, and can be carried out quickly, but are also limited, as they cannot be used regularly. A tested webcam and a modified Braun-Blanquet method turned out to be less suitable.

Plastic pollution on the Baltic beaches of Kaliningrad region, Russia

Contamination of sandy beaches of the Baltic Sea in Kaliningrad region is evaluated on the base of surveys carried out from June 2015 to January 2016. Quantity of macro/meso/microplastic objects in the upper 2cm of the sandy sediments of the wrack zone at 13 sampling sites all along the Russian coast is reported. Occurrence of paraffin and amber pieces at the same sites is pointed out. Special attention is paid to microplastics (range 0.5–5mm): its content ranges between 1.3 and 36.3 items per kg dry sediment. The prevailing found type is foamed plastic. No sound differences in contamination are discovered between beaches with high and low anthropogenic load. Mean level of contamination is of the same order of magnitude as has been reported by other authors for the Baltic Sea beaches.

Beaches under pressure – effects of human access on vegetation at Baltic Sea beaches

AbstractQuestionsHow do cover, richness and composition of plant species vary according to different levels of beach access? What shifts in plant traits occur along gradients of tourism intensity? What recommendations regarding the sustainable management of Baltic Sea beaches can be proposed?LocationSouthern Baltic Sea beaches in Germany.MethodsIn this study, the species composition of vascular plants on beaches with differing accessibility to tourists was analysed at the southwest Baltic Sea coast. In total, 894 vegetation plots were evaluated in order to determine vegetation changes along the sea–inland gradient due to different levels of human accessibility at beaches. Relevés were conducted as repeated transects from the beach ridge to the shore. Shifts in vegetation characteristics due to different levels of tourism access were analysed at the level of plant communities and plant species traits.ResultsSpecies richness did not differ significantly between the levels of accessibility. Vegetation cover significantly increased with distance to the shore and was highest in the upper shore area of closed beaches (52.0 ± 2.7%). Corresponding to the increase in beach access, we observed an increase in ruderal species and a decrease in typical beach species of the vegetation class Honckenyo‐Elymetea. Tourism access and distance to the shoreline had a decisive influence on the distribution of plants with selected plant traits. In particular, at accessible sites, a loss of plants with leaves having high scleromorphy was recorded.ConclusionsIncreased beach access results in a loss of typical beach plant species. Changes in vegetation characteristics are considered to alter the function of the beach ecosystem. Based on these results, we derived spatially differentiated management measures for excluding the most sensitive beach areas from tourism.

Effects of trampling on beach plants at the Baltic Sea

In the last century, increases in human population and beach tourism have affected coastlines worldwide. Resulting pressures on beach ecological systems demand research concerning tolerance of beach plants to disturbance by humans. At three different Baltic Sea beaches, Atriplex prostrata, Honckenya peploides and Crambe maritima were planted and observed while subjected to trampling stress intensities of 0, 1 and 2 footsteps·m−2·d−1. Plant height, leaf growth, number of leaves, chlorophyll content of leaves and fitness of photosystem II were measured at monthly intervals. Survival of plants was documented until the following summer. Linear mixed effect models fit the effects of trampling intensity, time and species on growth, photosynthetic productivity and reproduction of plants. Survival was fitted using general linear mixed models for binomial data. The results indicated that the annual species A. prostrata showed an initial decrease in growth at the first trampling treatment, but no effects on seed weight due to trampling pressure. Honckenya peploides was not affected by trampling. Crambe maritima showed a reduction in growth and survival under any level of trampling pressure. Experimental trampling pressure was compared to observed trampling intensities at beaches with low visitor frequency, which was ascertained to be between 3 and 8 footsteps·m−2·d−1. Because of the greater potential of endangerment for C. maritima, we suggest that nature conservation focus on reducing human trampling on the upper beach area, e.g. by closing this area. This practice would allow tourists continued recreational access to the water as well as to the lower beach area.

How much space is needed for spider conservation? Home range and movement patterns of wolf spiders (Aranea, Lycosidae) at Baltic Sea beaches

Beaches are often intensively used by tourists that compete with the area demands of specialised species. In order to estimate the area demand of beach spiders, home range, distribution and population dynamics of three species of Lycosidae (Arctosa cinerea, Arctosa perita and Pardosa agricola) were observed by mark-recapture experiments at two closed nature conservation beach areas at the Baltic Sea. Results revealed that the home range size of A. cinerea varied between beaches. The size of minimal complex polygons of males at a narrow sandy beach was 143.18 ± 22.62 m2 (females: 164.70 ± 13.48 m2) and was so significantly smaller than those found at a broader beach (males: 182.60 ± 13.46 m2; females: 179.36 ± 47.89 m2) with about 12 % stone coverage. General distribution of all spiders showed an increased frequency on the upper beach area. Estimates on the population size of the three species during summer revealed the highest population size in May and the least at the end of July. In addition, movement behaviour of A. cinerea was observed at a nature conservation area and at an accessible beach. Direct observations of movement patterns indicated that disturbed spiders take more detours and focus their movements seaward where they will be confronted with non-suitable conditions. This study underlines the sensitivity of predatory arthropods of beach habitats to human disturbance. This is particularly critical for the upper beach area. Based on these results, means of achieving viable arthropod populations through adjusted beach management are derived.

Management conflicts in the Vistula Lagoon area

The Vistula Lagoon is a transboundary water body, shared by Poland, an EU member state, and Russia. This fact hampers effective management of waters with respect to navigation, water quality, fisheries and tourism.The current state of communities living by the Vistula Lagoon is rather difficult. Economy of the southern part of the lagoon has been suffering persisting unemployment, the northern part performs better but not by using the lagoon but due to attractive Baltic Sea beaches along the Vistula Lagoon Spit, that draw numerous tourists during the summer season. Next, the entire Polish part of the Vistula Lagoon is under NATURA 2000 and Birds Directive. This poses great problems to fishermen and potential spatial development investors. Many investments are stopped or hampered by NATURA 2000 restrictions. Also, fishermen lose their fishing potential on behalf of very large population of cormorants who can eat more fish than fishermen catch. Laws and regulations are not adjusted to the existing situation and lead to overuse of fish stocks or destruction of fish spawning areas.Given the transboundary dimension of the Vistula Lagoon it became a case study for investigations of the FP7 LAGOONS project. It includes a socio-economic workpackage, aimed at identification of management problems raised by various stakeholders and end-users of the lagoon. For this purpose a series of interviews was carried out with representatives of local communities living and working on the Polish side of the Vistula Lagoon. The purpose of those interviews was to identify problems and conflicts concerning local environment, management of the area and legislation from the perspective of ‘ordinary’ people. Unfortunately, similar interviews on the Russian side of the lagoon were not executed, due to general financial constraints faced by non-EU partners participating in the FP7 EU program project.The respondents highlighted several key problems that prevent prosperity and sustainability of the lagoon and add to persisting relative poverty of the region. Primarily, they pointed out to bad quality of water in the lagoon, despite recent improvements in terms of erection of many new waste water treatment plants. Then, they indicated poor touristic and harbor infrastructure on both the northern and southern parts of the lagoon. Next, they signaled bureaucratic difficulties related to ecological restrictions imposed by NATURA 2000 requirements. This included the strain on the fishing sector by very large colony of cormorants. Finally, they discussed the problem of free navigation and access to the lagoon by Polish and non-Russian vessels. Nevertheless, the respondents believe that the lagoon possesses high economic potential, which must be harnessed to begin region's economic recovery and first steps toward sustainable development.

Nutrient content in macrophyta collected from southern Baltic Sea beaches in relation to eutrophication and biogas production

One of the signs of eutrophication is the excessive growth of opportunistic macroalgae, a worldwide phenomenon also observed in the Baltic Sea. Mats of macroalgae may drift long distances and accumulate at the seashore, considerably decreasing the recreational value of beaches. The matter accumulating at the shore is treated usually as waste. However, it could be used, for example, as a resource for biogas production. The aim of this work was to verify the hypothesis that collecting of macrophyta accumulating on the beach and potential usage of this material for biogas production will decrease nutrient reserves in the sea to counteract eutrophication and the increase in greenhouse effects. Samples of macrophyta were collected in 2011 and 2012 and analysed for their C, N, and P contents, and degree of degradation (% Chl-a in the sum of chloropigments-a); the results were analysed statistically. The nutrient content was studied in macrophyta accumulating on the beach (Sopot, Gulf of Gdańsk, Poland) and for comparison, macrophyta collected from their habitats in less nutrient polluted area (off the Skåre coast, Trelleborg, Sweden). The nutrient content (N, P) in macrophyta depends primarily on their morphology and only secondarily on environmental nutrient pollution. Collecting the macrophyta biomass accumulating on beaches will not significantly change the eutrophication of the Baltic as a whole; any improvements in this respect are likely to be on a local scale only. Collecting macrophyta removes more nitrogen than phosphorous, so this would decrease the N/P ratio in seawater. This macrophyta biomass is a substantial reserve of renewable energy, which could be utilized with the appropriate technology for biomass collection/preservation and biofuel production as an additive to other carbon-rich biomasses. And the biofuel production should be evaluated not only from the standpoint of economic efficiency but also from the environmental point of view.

LONG TERM EVOLUTION OF BALTIC SEA SANDY BEACH FORCED BY WINTER NORTH ATLANTIC OSCILLATION (NAOWI)

The study examines a hypothesis on the coupling between Winter North Atlantic Oscillation (NAOWI) and hydro- and morphodynamics of a sandy beach with multiple bars, situated at a Baltic Sea coastal segment in northern Poland. Identification of coincident long-term periodic patterns of shoreline variability and NAOWI is a strong argument for the existence of such a coupling, because the Baltic Sea is purely non-tidal and shoreline evolution is driven entirely by waves. Interestingly, similar periodic patterns were also found in the reconstructed long-term winter wave climate (hourly retrieved significant wave height between 1958 - 2001). Therefore, the hypothesis received a strong and comprehensive statistical footing. It highlights the fact that long-term periodic changes in winter energy fluxes from air through waves to the beach remain imprinted in shoreline evolution. Hence, any climate change driven modifications of global meteorological patterns, such as NAOWI, may have vital implications for Baltic Sea beaches in coming decades.

Impacts on biodiversity at Baltic Sea beaches

Sandy and shingle beaches were investigated in 2009 and 2010 along the coast of the Baltic Sea in northern Germany with the purpose of assessing biodiversity gradients from shingle to sandy beaches, from beach to primary dunes, and the impacts of tourism on biodiversity. On nine beach sites, ranging between 100% shingle and 99% sand without shingle, Carabidae, Staphylinidae, and Araneae were studied. Two of the six sandy beaches were open and four were closed to tourists. Additionally, trampling effects from tourists, species richness of plants, and plant cover were investigated on sixteen beaches. According to results, primary dunes showed higher species richness in carabids and spiders, but not in staphylinds. Shingle beaches exhibited lower species richness in Staphylinidae and Araneae, but not in Carabidae. As estimated by the Jackknife II method, shingle beaches were the lowest in total species richness. Trampling intensity ranged from 0 footprints m−2 day−1 on closed beaches, up to a maximum of 30 footprints m−2 day−1. On “intensively” used beaches (12 footprints m−2 day−1, on average), reduction of plant cover was more pronounced than on “extensively” used beaches (7 footprints m−2 day−1, on average). Both plant cover and plant species richness were lower on intensively and extensively used beaches than on closed beaches. In arthropods, only staphylind and spider species richness was significantly lower on open beaches than on closed beaches, but no differences were found in carabids. Referring to our results, trampling effects from tourists have high impact on species richness of sandy beaches, on both intensively and extensively used sites.

Tar balls in Baltic Sea beaches

The results of studying tar balls on Baltic Sea beaches (the summer of 2008) are given with their comparison with other coastal areas. Tar balls in concentrations of 0.01–1.2 g/running m on the beaches of Sambiiskii Peninsula are found to correspond to a mean level of beach pollution. It is shown that, in addition to weathering, even high-molecular homologues in the composition of tar balls are rapidly decaying. Therefore, the molecular markers currently in use are not unequivocal indicators to the origin of hydrocarbons.

Seasonal tourism spaces in Estonia: Case study with mobile positioning data

The study analysed the seasonality of foreign tourists’ space consumption in Estonia using mobile positioning dataset with anonymous roaming data. The method which uses mobile phone positioning coordinates in space–time movement studies in Estonia is called the social positioning method. The dataset allowed analysis of the distribution of foreigners’ country of origin in Estonia with the precision of network cells of mobile operators. Privacy of mobile phone holders was guaranteed according to EU regulation. It was concluded that seasonality produces very different and sometimes even opposite tourists’ space consumption patterns in Estonia. Coastal areas are popular for summer tourism and not so popular in winter; continental inland areas were used more for winter tourism. The popular summer tourism areas along the Baltic Sea beaches are dominated by one nationality: the Finnish in western Estonia, and the Russians in eastern Estonia. Latvians made up a higher percentage in Saaremaa and Pärnu during summer and in Otepää and Lake Peipsi in winter. The mobile positioning data have great potential for tourism studies and monitoring, but is a sensitive issue due to the fear of surveillance.